Local Economic Development Impacts of International Backpacker Tourism to Third World Destinations
Evidence from a Traveller Enclave in Indias Andaman Archipelago
©2009
Masterarbeit
163 Seiten
Zusammenfassung
Inhaltsangabe:Introduction:
In the past two decades backpacker tourism has grown vastly throughout both developed and developing world. Particularly to south and Southeast Asian countries the phenomenon of backpacking is not new, so to India, where it dates back to the 60s and 70s hippy drifters, to which backpacking is often associated. It has been since the publication of the Lonely Planets Yellow Bible (Southeast Asia on a Shoestring) in 1975 that backpacking has gradually emerged as a mass travel style. Today popular travel-yourself literature cover almost every corner of the globe, serving a steady demand for off the beaten path travel. Thereby to backpackers the developmental background of a destination plays a lesser role than to the mainstream tourist, who is demanding certain infrastructural arrangements. As a result backpackers are found in utmost remote and low developed locations that other tourists never reach. Thus backpacker enclaves have emerged in many places throughout the world, and not without effects on their hosting environments. While social impacts often carry negative connotations, hosting communities do usually appreciate backpackers for their economic contributions.
Objectives and Scope of this paper:
In recent years backpacker tourism has profoundly been studied in developed contexts, particularly Australia and New Zealand are to be seen the pioneering regions of independent travel research, having undertaken strenuous efforts to study the same within the past two decades. As a consequence both destinations have recognized the economic value of low budget travel to their countries and established backpacker tourism as high yielding segments within their national tourism markets. In both countries backpacking has since undergone shift from de-marketing to a marketing label.
Though in recent years international research has made numerous successful attempts to study backpacker tourism in less developed contexts, many tourism officials in third world destinations as yet refuse to accept the economic reach coming along with low-budget travel. Instead a majority of administrative instances promote upscale- and regulated forms of tourism to be the way forward, neglecting any concerns with regard to necessary infrastructure or initial investments. Though only a fraction of developing nations do actively restrict independent travel to their territories (e.g. Maldives, Bhutan), a majority at best tacitly ignores the […]
In the past two decades backpacker tourism has grown vastly throughout both developed and developing world. Particularly to south and Southeast Asian countries the phenomenon of backpacking is not new, so to India, where it dates back to the 60s and 70s hippy drifters, to which backpacking is often associated. It has been since the publication of the Lonely Planets Yellow Bible (Southeast Asia on a Shoestring) in 1975 that backpacking has gradually emerged as a mass travel style. Today popular travel-yourself literature cover almost every corner of the globe, serving a steady demand for off the beaten path travel. Thereby to backpackers the developmental background of a destination plays a lesser role than to the mainstream tourist, who is demanding certain infrastructural arrangements. As a result backpackers are found in utmost remote and low developed locations that other tourists never reach. Thus backpacker enclaves have emerged in many places throughout the world, and not without effects on their hosting environments. While social impacts often carry negative connotations, hosting communities do usually appreciate backpackers for their economic contributions.
Objectives and Scope of this paper:
In recent years backpacker tourism has profoundly been studied in developed contexts, particularly Australia and New Zealand are to be seen the pioneering regions of independent travel research, having undertaken strenuous efforts to study the same within the past two decades. As a consequence both destinations have recognized the economic value of low budget travel to their countries and established backpacker tourism as high yielding segments within their national tourism markets. In both countries backpacking has since undergone shift from de-marketing to a marketing label.
Though in recent years international research has made numerous successful attempts to study backpacker tourism in less developed contexts, many tourism officials in third world destinations as yet refuse to accept the economic reach coming along with low-budget travel. Instead a majority of administrative instances promote upscale- and regulated forms of tourism to be the way forward, neglecting any concerns with regard to necessary infrastructure or initial investments. Though only a fraction of developing nations do actively restrict independent travel to their territories (e.g. Maldives, Bhutan), a majority at best tacitly ignores the […]
Leseprobe
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Till Albrecht Müller
Local Economic Development Impacts of International Backpacker Tourism to Third
World Destinations
Evidence from a Traveller Enclave in India's Andaman Archipelago
ISBN: 978-3-8428-1284-0
Herstellung: Diplomica® Verlag GmbH, Hamburg, 2011
Zugl. Fachhochschule Eberswalde, Eberswalde, Deutschland, MA-Thesis / Master, 2009
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INDEX:
Table of Maps
Table of Charts
Abbreviations used
1. INTRODUCTION
1
1.1 Objectives and Scope
1
1.2 Structure
3
1.3 Overall Methodology
4
THEORETICAL CONTEXT
2. INTRODUCTION TO THE DESTINATION
6
2.1 Destination India
6
2.1.1 India's developmental situation
6
2.1.2 Geography and climate
7
2.1.3 Politics and economy
7
2.1.4 Tourism in India
8
2.2 Destination Andaman Islands
13
2.2.1 Geographic facts
13
2.2.2 Brief historical review
14
2.2.3 Population
14
2.2.4 Economy and industry
14
2.2.5 A&N Islands tourism
15
2.3 Destination Havelock Island
16
2.3.1 Location
16
2.3.2 Population
16
2.3.3 Landscape and infrastructure
16
3. BACKPACKER DEFINING CRITERIA & TYPOLOGIES
17
3.1 Cohen's tourist typology
17
3.1.1 The Organized Mass Tourist
17
3.1.2 The Individual Mass Tourist
18
3.1.3 The Explorer
18
3.1.4 The Drifter
18
3.2 Riley's defining criteria of independent travellers (1988)
19
3.3 Defining criteria of contemporary backpackers
20
3.3.1 Pearce's defining criteria of backpackers (1990)
20
3.3.2 Ateljevic & Doorne's defining criteria of backpackers (2000)
22
3.3.3 Contrasting Ateljevic & Doorne's backpacker types with
24
4. DEFINING CRITERIA WITH REGARD TO THE STUDY AREA
25
4.1 The backpacker enclave
25
4.2 Forms and types of backpacker enclaves
26
4.2.3 Urban and Rural Enclaves
26
4.2.4 Functional and Destinational Enclaves
26
4.2.5 Concentrated and Dispersed Enclaves
26
4.3 The evolutionary paths of backpacker enclaves
27
4.3.1 Butler's Tourist Area Life Cycle (TALC) Model
27
4.3.2 Papatheodorou's advanced evolutionary approach
30
5. BACKPACKER TOURISM ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT CRITERIA 31
5.1 Scheyven's Economic Development Criteria of Budget Tourism
32
STUDY RESULTS
6. THE QUANTITATIVE SURVEY PROFILING THE BACKPACKER 34
6.1 Methodology of the quantitative survey
34
6.1.1 Conceptualisation of the survey
34
6.1.2 Survey execution
37
6.1.3 Evaluation of data
39
6.2 Survey findings and discussion
42
6.2.1 Socioeconomic aspects - who is travelling?
44
6.2.2 Travel company, itinerary and trip length
50
6.2.3 Travel motivations
56
6.2.4 Use of infrastructure
61
6.2.5 Budgeting and expenses
69
6.2.6 Organized activities on Havelock Island
74
6.2.7 Statements to rate regarding India as a destination
76
6.3 Summary of survey findings
78
6.3.1 Demographics
78
6.3.2 Travel company
78
6.3.3 Travel motives
78
6.3.4 Itinerary
79
6.3.5 Use of infrastructure
80
6.3.6 Spending
81
6.4 Contrasting study findings with defining criteria of Pearce, Ateljevic & Doorne
82
6.4.1 Comparison of survey findings with defining criteria of Pearce
82
6.4.2 Comparison of survey findings with Ateljevic & Doorne's advanced defining criteria
84
7. THE QUALITATIVE SURVEY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IMPACTS ON HAVELOCK
ISLAND 86
7.1 Methodology of qualitative interviews
86
7.2 Study findings and discussion
87
7.2.1 A temporal review of Havelock's budget tourism development
88
7.2.2 Economic development impacts on Havelock
91
7.2.3 The case of Shri Dhananjoy Mondal and family
97
7.4 Summary of local economic development impacts on Havelock
99
7.5 Contrasting Havelock's status with Scheyven's defining criteria
101
8. DEFINING HAVELOCK'S CURRENT STATUS AS A BACKPACKER ENCLAVE
104
8.1 Classification of Havelock's status according to Cohen and Howard
104
8.2 Classification of Havelock's evolutionary status according to Butler & Papatheodorou
106
8.3 Do backpackers spearhead mass tourism?
109
9. SUCCEEDING FACTORS FOR BPT DEVELOPMENT
111
9.1 Resources beneficial to tourism development
111
9.2 Surrounding conditions beneficial to independent travel development
114
9.3 Success factors for backpacker travel development in brief
119
10. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDED COURSE OF ACTION
120
11. REFERENCES
124
12. ANNEX
131
The questionnaire
Interview Guidelines
Quantitative Survey Data
Table of Maps
MAP 1: LOCATION OF INDIA IN ASIA
7
MAP 2: INDIA AND LOCATION OF ANDAMAN ISLANDS TERRITORY
13
MAP 3: THE ANDAMAN ARCHIPELAGO AND HAVELOCK ISLAND
16
Table of Charts
CHART 1: FOREIGN TOURIST ARRIVALS IN INDIA, 1996-2007 ... 9
CHART 2: MONTHWISE TOURIST ARRIVALS (FTA'S) 2006-JUNE 2008 ... 9
CHART 3: TOP TEN SOURCE COUNTRIES FOR FOREIGN TOURIST ARRIVALS IN INDIA 2007 ... 10
CHART 4: TRADITIONAL LONG TERM BUDGET TRAVELLER VS. MAINSTREAM BACKPACKER . 23
CHART 5: BUTLER'S (1980) TALC MODEL ... 29
CHART 6: QUANTITATIVE SURVEY LOCATIONS ... 38
CHART 7: BACKPACKER SELF IDENTIFICATION ... 44
CHART 8: BACKPACKER NATIONALITY DISTRIBUTION ... 46
CHART 9: BACKPACKER AGE DISTRIBUTION ... 47
CHART 10: BACKPACKER EMPLOYMENT STATUS... 48
CHART 11: BACKPACKER EDUCATION ... 49
CHART 12: BACKPACKER TRAVEL COMPANY... 50
CHART 13: NUMBER OF TRIPS TO INDIA... 51
CHART 14: OVERALL AND INDIA SPECIFIC TRAVEL TIMES ... 52
CHART 15: SOJOURN TIMES ON ANDAMAN AND HAVELOCK ISLAND(S) ... 54
CHART 16: MOTIVATIONAL PUSH FACTORS ... 56
CHART 17: MOTIVATIONAL PULL FACTORS FOR TRAVELLING INDIA ... 57
CHART 18: MOTIVATIONAL PULL FACTORS FOR TRAVELLING ANDAMAN ISLANDS ... 59
CHART 19: TRANSPORTATION IN INDIA ... 61
CHART 20: ACCOMMODATION IN INDIA ... 64
CHART 21: CATERING AND FOOD SUPPLY... 66
CHART 22: SOURCES OF INFORMATION ... 67
CHART 23: TOTAL ESTIMATED BUDGET FOR INDIA ... 70
CHART 24: AVERAGE DAILY BUDGET ... 71
CHART 25: EXPENDITURE BREAKDOWN FOR THE PREVIOUS DAY ... 72
CHART 26: ORGANIZED ACTIVITIES ON HAVELOCK ... 75
CHART 27: FRAMEWORK CONDITIONS STATEMENTS TO RATE ... 76
CHART 28: NUMBER OF FOREIGN TOURIST ARRIVALS ON HAVELOCK ISLAND ... 89
Abbreviations used
A&NI
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
DC
Developing
Country
DTP
Draft Tourism Policy
IMF
International Monetary Fund
FTA's
Foreign Tourist Arrivals
UNDP
United Nations Development Program
NIC
Newly
Industrialized
Countries
UNO
United Nations Organisation
GDP
Gross
Domestic Product
HDI
Human
Development
Index
CIA
Central Intelligence Agency
WTO
World Tourism Organisation
IT Information
Technology
MICE
Meetings and Incentives
PVC
Polyvinyl
Chloride
OECD
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
Introduction
1
1. Introduction
In the past two decades backpacker tourism has grown vastly throughout both developed and
developing world. Particularly to south and Southeast Asian countries the phenomenon of
backpacking is not new, so to India, where it dates back to the 60's and 70's hippy drifters, to
which backpacking is often associated. It has been since the publication of the Lonely Planet's
"Yellow Bible" ("Southeast Asia on a Shoestring") in 1975 that backpacking has gradually
emerged as a mass travel style. Today popular travel-yourself literature cover almost every
corner of the globe, serving a steady demand for `off the beaten path' travel. Thereby to
backpackers the developmental background of a destination plays a lesser role than to the
mainstream tourist, who is demanding certain infrastructural arrangements. As a result
backpackers are found in utmost remote and low developed locations that other tourists never
reach. Thus backpacker enclaves have emerged in many places throughout the world, and not
without effects on their hosting environments. While social impacts often carry negative
connotations, hosting communities do usually appreciate backpackers for their economic
contributions.
1.1 Objectives and Sco
pe
In recent years backpacker tourism has profoundly been studied in developed contexts,
particularly Australia and New Zealand are to be seen the pioneering regions of independent
travel research, having undertaken strenuous efforts to study the same within the past two
decades. As a consequence both destinations have recognized the economic value of low
budget travel to their countries and established backpacker tourism as high yielding segments
within their national tourism markets. In both countries backpacking has since undergone shift
from de-marketing to a marketing label.
Though in recent years international research has made numerous successful attempts to study
backpacker tourism in less developed contexts, many tourism officials in third world
destinations as yet refuse to accept the economic reach coming along with low-budget travel.
Instead a majority of administrative instances promote upscale- and regulated forms of
tourism to be the way forward, neglecting any concerns with regard to necessary
infrastructure or initial investments. Though only a fraction of developing nations do actively
restrict independent travel to their territories (e.g. Maldives, Bhutan), a majority at best tacitly
Introduction
2
ignores the phenomenon. Other cases have proven forceful discouragement from local
authorities and government bodies. India is an example, though having a long tradition as a
backpacker destination and as yet well reputing among international travellers, there are
strong indications that tourism planners and authorities follow the common misbelieve that
low budget equals low revenue tourism and begin displacing backpacker tourism, in particular
from designated tourism priority zones.
At this point the present paper starts to assume relevance.
It aims at proving the economic significance of international backpacker tourism in a third
world context, particularly the economic development impacts coming along with this form of
travel. Beside setting up an explorative backpacker profile of independent travellers in India it
examines the case of a remote Indian traveller enclave including the local and regional
economic developments directly and indirectly resulting from budget travel.
Basing on empirical research firstly a backpacker profile is being created, providing
fundamental quantitative data on travellers in India and the study area itself. A second aim of
this paper is to place the backpacker in India into an international context and identify
similarities and differences to his counterpart in other regions of the world. Furthermore it
follows the question of the existence of different types of backpackers in India. Hence, survey
findings are being contrasted with data from other, international backpacker markets, as well
as theoretic defining and distinction criteria. The identification of parallels farther allows an
application of economic development criteria from other destinations onto the Indian context.
The section therewith sheds light onto the demand side of India's contemporary budget travel
market.
A qualitative approach has been chosen to run down on backpacker economic development
impacts on Havelock in the Andaman Islands, representing the study area of this paper.
Substantiated by data from the backpacker profile this second section portrays the case of a
remote islands enclave, and how backpacker tourism impacts on its local economy. Again
findings are being contrasted with a number of theoretic criteria, in order to emphasize their
significance to the region. Farther the evolutionary path of backpacker enclaves is being
followed and the question whether or not independent travel spearheads organized forms of
tourism. This section particularly approaches the supply side of independent travel in India
and the area of focus. Finally the paper aims at identifying factors for success of backpacker
travel in India and the Andaman Islands.
Introduction
3
1.2 Structure
The paper divides into two major sections, the first providing theoretic context criteria
(Chapters One to Five), the second presenting the study results (Chapters Six to Nine).
Theoretical Context
After an overall introduction in Chapter One the Second Chapter introduces to the context of
developing countries, and to India as the destination of central focus. Subsequently the
Andaman Islands are being introduced, as is Havelock Island, the survey area of this paper.
The Third Chapter provides the theoretic context with regard to backpacker travel. The
backpacker himself is discussed in theory, examining defining criteria and varying approaches
to sub classification. It provides a basis for the subsequent discussion of survey results in
Chapter Six.
The Fourth Chapter provides the theoretic background with regard to the backpacker
destination. The term `backpacker enclave' is introduced and its various types being paid
attention. The evolutionary path of backpacker enclaves is taken into focus as well as various
factors impacting on the same. Chapter Four shall provide the context for the subsequent
discussion of Havelock's current developmental status in Chapter Eight.
Chapter Five takes into focus theoretic aspects of economic development impacts that come
along with budget travel. It presents a set of specific criteria that form a basis for discussing
the current situation in the study area as part of Chapter Seven.
Study Results
Findings from the quantitative survey (backpacker profile) are presented in Chapter Six. It
provides details on the methodology used, comprises comparison and discussion of results
and contrasts findings to theoretic defining criteria examined in Chapter Three.
The Seventh Chapter presents and discusses local economic development impacts on
Havelock, as found through qualitative research and substantiated by quantitative data. It
gives a temporal review on backpacker tourism development on Havelock Island, portrays the
present situation and presents the case of a local family involved in the budget tourism sector.
Finally findings are contrasted with theoretic criteria outlined in Chapter Five.
Introduction
4
Chapter Eight discusses Havelock's developmental status, evolution and type as a
backpacker enclave and tourist destination. It falls back on theoretic defining criteria from
Chapter Four. Apart from that the question of the backpacker's pioneering function in
opening up new destinations is being discussed.
Chapter Nine outlines the success factors of backpacker development in the destination with
a separate focus on India and the Andaman Islands.
Chapter Ten concludes the study findings and gives recommendations for policy makers and
future researchers on the issue of backpacking in India.
1.3 Overall Methodology
This paper is basing on a methodological mix, combining primary and secondary literature
research with qualitative and quantitative survey techniques.
In order to create a theoretical context to which subsequently relate qualitative and
quantitative study findings the first major section of this paper bases on intense literature
research from both print media and online contents. Literature research has farther been used
as a tool to define exact analytic goals of the subsequent field survey, and to develop an
applicable field survey instrument. At any time it has been in the focus to gain information
from literature that would later support the analysis and evaluation of field survey findings.
The second section of this paper bases on combining quantitative and qualitative research
methods, and focuses on presenting the same in order to subsequently give answer to the
paper's overall scientific question. The quantitative part comprises a questionnaire survey
conducted among backpacking travellers in an Indian enclave. Therewith the issue of
independent travel in India is being approached from a demand side. Basing on onsite pre-
evaluation of quantitative data a series of qualitative in depth interviews were held with local
tourism entrepreneurs. In other cases, where formal interviews seemed inappropriate, informal
interviews were held with stakeholders. Therewith the supply side of independent tourism was
taken into focus of research. Both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies are
examined in detail prior to presentation of study findings, respectively.
Introduction
5
In the first sections (Theoretical Context, Chapters 3-5) it seemed inevitable to fall back on
research findings from other parts of the world, as backpacker theoretic data was found
inexistent specifically for India. Therefore, and as fundamental defining criteria for
backpacker travel have particularly been brought up as part of pioneering surveys from
Oceania, those sections refer to data from earlier studies conducted in Australia and New
Zealand (Riley, 1988; Pearce 1990; Ateljevic and Doorne, 2000). Study results, in particular
discussive and comparative parts of the quantitative survey's findings (backpacker profile),
fall back on rather recent, trans-national backpacker surveys (cf. Chapter 6).
Introductory remarks on the terminology used
To avoid terminological misinterpretation it seems inevitable to elucidate the use of
terminology used when referring to the backpacker: In this paper the term `Backpacker' is
put on a level with a number of synonyms, such as `Traveller', `Budget Traveller',
`Independent Traveller' or `Individual Traveller'. Some defining criteria may farther
necessitate the use of the term `Long Term Budget Traveller'. Combinations are also
possible. Accordingly terms like. `Independent Budget Traveller', `International Backpacker'
or `Budget tourist' will appear. However, at any times the terminology describes the same
phenomenon. In very few cases the term `tourist' is used to describe backpackers, though to
avoid confusion this is pointed out specifically.
To describe tourist types and travel styles divergent to contemporary backpacking terms like
`Vacationist', `Holiday Maker', `Ordinary Tourist' or `Package Tourist' or `domestic tourist'
are commonly used, depending on the context.
Theoretical Context Introduction to the Destination
6
2. Introduction to the Destination
2.1 Destination India
2.1.1 India's developmental situation
According to the United Nations Organisation (UNO) India is ranking as a developing nation.
UNO states that developing countries commonly show the following characteristics:
·
DC have low standards of democratic governments, industrialization, social programs,
and human rights guarantees for its citizens
·
DC are countries that have not achieved a significant degree of industrialization
relative to their populations, and which have, in most cases a medium to low standard
of living. There is a strong correlation between low income and high population
growth.
Though a universal definition does not exist the development status of a country is commonly
measured along the United Nation Development Program's (UNDP) compound Human
Development Index (HDI), which combines normalized measures of life expectancy, literacy,
educational attainment, and GDP per capita. Following that approach allows sub-
categorization into Least Developed Countries and Newly Industrialized Countries (NIC). The
latter are defined countries that have outpaced other developing nations with their booming
economies, though remaining on developing level in many social and environmental aspects.
According to that India qualifies as a NIC alongside with, Brazil, South Africa, Mexico,
China, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Turkey. Other sources addressing the same
problem refer to India as a Big Emerging Market.
Sources: IMF, 2008; Wikipedia, 2009a;b;c
Theoretical Context Introduction to the Destination
7
2.1.2 Geography and climate
India is a state in south Asia. By territory (3.287.590 km²) it is the seventh largest country, by
population (1.129.866.000
1
) the second largest in the world. India has boarders with Pakistan
in its northwest, Nepal, Bhutan, and China to the north, as well as Burma and Bangladesh in
its northeast. The maximum north to south extension is 3200km, east to west 3000km at a
maximum. India has 7000km of coastline, and three off coast territories, the Lakshadweep
Islands in the Arabian Sea, as well as Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Gulf of Bengal. In
the north India elevates into the Himalaya Mountains, apart from that India is run through by
the West Ghats' mid elevation ranges, the in the country's south west (CIA, 2009).
Climate:
India's climate ranges from subtropical,
continental throughout most of the north,
to tropical maritime climate in the south.
Alpine regions are characterized by
specific conditions. The annual climate is
strongly influenced by the monsoon,
bringing heavy precipitation from June
through to September.
Map 1: Location of India in Asia
Source: Modified after Wikipedia, 2009
2.1.3 Politics and economy
India, officially the Republic of India, received independence from British colonial
governance in 1947 and was found as a parliamentary democracy in 1950. Since, it has been
the world's largest democratic system. Today's capital and second largest city is New Dheli,
though India's trade centre and largest city is Mumbai, with roughly 20 million people in its
agglomerate. The third largest city and centre of India's booming IT industry is Bangalore,
inhabiting some 5mio people (CIA, 2009).
Today India's diverse economy encompasses traditional village farming, modern agriculture,
handicrafts, a wide range of modern industries, and a multitude of services. Services are the
1
according to the 2007 census
Theoretical Context Introduction to the Destination
8
major source of economic growth, accounting for more than half of India's output with less
than one third of its labour force. About three-fifths of the work force is in agriculture (CIA,
2009).
As part of India's economy particularly the IT branch has undergone rapid growth in recent
years. The country is capitalizing on its large numbers of well-educated people skilled in the
English language and has become a major exporter of software services and software workers.
Fuelled by its IT and other export oriented industries India achieved 8.5% GDP growth in
2006, 9.0% in 2007, and 7.3% in 2008, significantly expanding production of manufactures
(CIA, 2009).
Despite its booming economy India remains one of the poorest countries in the world. Though
the percentage of people living below the international poverty line has drastically dropped in
the past decades it still levels above 40% (WTO, 2005).
The contrasting figures of poverty on one hand and economic growth on the other allowed for
its recent reclassification as an `emerging nation'. Though large parts of the economy are
booming, outbalancing those of other developing nations, India remains at developing level in
many social and environmental aspects.
2.1.4 Tourism in India
2.1.4.1 Tourist figures
Tourism, particular non institutionalized forms, is not a new phenomenon to India, since the
late 1960's the country, especially the tiny state Goa has well reputed as a hippy haven and
independent travellers paradise. India has a huge range of (potential) tourist attractions of both
natural and cultural kind. The country's pulling assets span from high alpine mountains over
tropical beaches, national parks and biodiversity hotspots into rich and living traditions, a
distinct touch of eastern spirituality and vast numbers of historical monuments dating far back
into history.
Apart from its appeal to independent travellers, India has begun to attract rather structured
forms of tourism. Again Goa is playing a leading role in the country's recent efforts to
promote e.g. quality sun and beach travel. Hence, tourism in India has vastly grown in the
past decade, both domestic and foreign.
Theoretical Context Introduction to the Destination
9
During 2007 domestic tourist visits have increased by 14% to 526 million, foreign arrivals by
14.3% to 5.08 million. Therewith India ranks number 42 in world tourist arrivals and number
11 in the Asia-Pacific region. As the focus of this paper is on international budget travellers,
figures relating to foreign tourist arrivals are taken into regard.
Chart 1 indicates Foreign Tourist
Arrivals (FTA's) having more than
doubled within in the past 11 years
.
Chart 1: Foreign Tourist Arrivals in India, 1996-2007
Source: Govt. of India, 2007
India's Tourist season is strongly influenced by the monsoonal rains occurring from June
through to September. This is well reflected in fluctuations of foreign tourist arrivals over a
year, being at a height between November and February and at its low during monsoonal
months. Peak season must be considered December and January, with 2007/08 figures of
monthly foreign arrivals close to 600.000, respectively. At this time of the year climate is dry,
warm and sunny.
Chart 2 shows 2008
Foreign Tourist
Arrivals (green
colour) exceeding
previous year's
FTAs. The 2008
annual total must be
assumed to have
outweighed the 2007
total FTAs.
Chart 2: Monthwise Tourist Arrivals (FTAs) 2006-June 2008
Source: Govt. of India, 2007
Theoretical Context Introduction to the Destination
10
Tourism Revenues & Foreign Tourist Spending
Following the attempt to further boost foreign exchange earnings through international
tourism by tracking its quality tourism development strategy India has managed to almost
quadruple foreign exchange incomes over the past 12 years, while at the same time
international tourist arrivals have `only' doubled. According to the ministry of tourism India
achieved foreign exchange incomes worth US$10729 million through international tourism in
2007. Though details and recording methodology of data are not known to the author it may
be assumed that revenues from independent travel, in particular backpacker spending are not
well represented. However, taken the figure in relation to the number of 2007 foreign tourist
arrivals (5,08million) as stated by the India's Bureau of Immigration, a figure of an average
spending of US$ 2112 per foreign visitor comes into being.
Source Countries
Source countries of international tourism as to India's immigration Bureau are shown in Chart
No. 3. The ministry of tourism and bureau of immigration does not give specification on
which forms of tourism are represented or how data has been recorded. It may be assumed,
and as Bangladesh and Sri Lanka are among the top six, that data reflects a total number of
foreign entries to India, e.g. on issued tourist Visa. However, data must be interpreted
conservatively.
Chart 3: Top Ten Source Countries for Foreign FTAs in India 2007
Source: Govt. of India, 2007
Theoretical Context Introduction to the Destination
11
2.1.4.2. Tourism development strategy
India has fully realized the potential coming along with tourism both domestic and foreign.
The first ever Tourism Policy was announced by the Government of India in November 1982
It took ten long years for the Government to feel the need to come up with a possible
improvement over this. Thus the `National Action Plan for Tourism' was announced in May
1992, becoming reoriented several times in the following years (Equitable Tourism Options,
2009). In 2007, and as part of its international "Incredible India" marketing campaign, the
Ministry of Tourism, government of India has expressed its aims in the latest, eleventh, legal
tourism planning strategy. The development agenda of the ministry is presently on track to
implement these strategies.
Considering the benefits that tourism brings, particularly foreign exchange earnings gained
from foreign tourism, India's tourism planners focus on continuing with a multi pronged
strategy, with a view to achieving higher growth of quality tourism in nearby future. An
overall goal expressed in the ministry's 5 year planning document is to achieve quantum
expansion of the country's tourist infrastructure, diversification of India's tourism products
and international source markets, reduction of seasonality in foreign tourist arrivals and
promotion of round-the-year tourism. The same 2007 document states the aim to achieve 10
million foreign tourist arrivals next to 500 million domestic arrivals by 2010. Particular
government efforts as of 2007 are going to tackle the issues listed below:
· Diversifying the principle source markets for foreign tourists
· Addressing the shortage of tourist accommodation
· Improve road connectivity
· Development of tourist destinations and circuits
· Promoting new tourism products and improve existing ones
· Development of quality tourism manpower
· Promotion and publicity (domestic and international)
· Streamlining procedures (deregulate Visa and permits for restricted zones)
· Tax incentives and concessions for tourism enterprises
· Research and analysis
Theoretical Context Introduction to the Destination
12
Though India's tourism development strategy clearly emphasises the development of rural
and adventure tourism, mentioned under the `promotion of new tourism products', the
phenomenon of independent budget travel remains tacitly ignored. The strategy instead takes
into focus on boosting rather organized forms of travel, with package and luxury tourism
given strong preference. The progress of implementing the latter becomes particularly
apparent in recent year's beachside developments in the state of Goa, a defined tourism
priority zone and self-appointed `Riviera' of the subcontinent (cf. Wilson, 1997).
As farther expressed in its 2007 paper, the ministry aims encouraging medical tourism and
MICE, sustainable beach- and coastal tourism, cruise tourism as well as heritage- and `special
shopping´ tourism.
What had already been approved at regional level in Goa (cf. Wilson, 1997) has therewith
been reconfirmed at national level. The 2007 official tourism strategy clearly reveals that
Backpacker tourism is still considered of low economic contribution to India by its tourism
planners.
Source: Ministry of Tourism, India, 2008
Off-coast territory tourism development policies
From India's three off coast territories the Andaman archipelago is currently the only island
group that has partly loosened its restrictions to non institutionalized forms of international
tourism. Hence a number of Andaman's islands are accessible on legal permission, allowing
foreigners to travel freely for up to 4 weeks.
The Lakshadweep archipelago follows a strict upscale resort tourism development strategy
similar to those in the Maldives, to which it shows geographical proximity. The archipelago's
tourism policy disallows independent travel to foreigner visitors.
Access to the Nicobar group, located south of Andaman Islands yet is fully restricted to
foreign nationals. Indian visitors are only allowed on exceptional permission, which excludes
recreational holidaying.
Source: Personal travel experience of the author, on-site investigation
Theoretical Context Introduction to the Destination
13
2.2 Destination Andaman Islands
2.2.1 Geographic facts
The Andaman Islands are part of the Andaman and Nicobar Island Group, located in the Gulf
of Bengal, belonging to India's Union Territory. The capital of both archipelagos is Port Blair,
located in the southern parts of the Andaman group. Together both archipelagos consist of
572 islands, though only 36 are inhabited. Most islands are surrounded by coral reefs, sandy
beaches and clear waters. A majority of unsettled isles are covered in primary forests. The
Andaman district covers an area 6408km² and is therewith far larger than the Nicobar section
(1841km²). Distance from Port Blair on Andaman Islands to Chennai at India's continental
east is 1190km, to Kolkata 1255km, therewith the archipelago is geographically closer to
Thailand and Burma than to its present political administrator. The maximum north south
extension of the Andaman group is 467km, east to west it extends only 24km. Andaman
Island's highest elevation, Saddle Peak, reaches 732m a.s.l., apart from that the archipelago
features India's only active volcano. There are a number of forest reserves and marine
national parks throughout the Archipelago.
Map 2: India and location of Andaman Islands territory
Source: modified after Google Maps, 2009
Theoretical Context Introduction to the Destination
14
2.2.2 Brief historical review
In the mid 19
th
century the islands were occupied by British colonial explorers, which came
with the primary purpose to set up a penal colony for dissenters and independence fighters
from Indian mainland. The British remained predominant until World War Two, before
Japanese troops took over the archipelago. After reoccupation by Indian troops towards the
end of the war Andaman Islands became Indian Union Territory in 1950.
2.2.3 Population
According to a 2001 census the Andaman group inhabits 314.000 people, a vast majority are
introduced settlers from mainland India. Farther fractions of indigenous tribal people
remained living in forest reserves on middle and north Andaman Island. There numbers have
vastly narrowed and a number of tribes were extinct as a result of epidemic diseases brought
along with the colonisation of past decades. Thus the remainder, estimated to be 500-1000
individuals only, are maintaining a steadfast independence and refuse most attempts at
contact.
2.2.4 Economy and industry
Since its resettlement by continental Indians throughout the past 60 years the Islands main
economic sector developed in agriculture. In the Andaman group of islands paddy is the main
cultivated food crop, farther tropical fruits and coconut are grown widely throughout the
islands. Rubber, red oil, palm and cashew are grown on a limited scale.
The industry in the islands is rather small scale, mainly basing on handicrafts. Apart from that
there are a small number of medium size export oriented fish processing plants, others
medium sized industrial ventures are engaged in the production of polythene bags, PVC
conduit pipes and fittings, paints and varnish, fibre glass and mini flour mills, soft drinks and
beverages, etc.. Timber extraction has been an industry but has been banned in the 1990s.
Source: The national Portal of India, 2009
Theoretical Context Introduction to the Destination
15
2.2.5 A&N Islands tourism
Though visitors have been trickling into the islands from the late 1980s, early 1990s, tourism,
as yet, has to be described in an infant stage. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands were
shrouded in mystery for centuries because of their inaccessibility. Until a decade ago the
archipelago was only within reach of a 4-5 day shipping passage from continental India.
Flight connections did hardly exist. This has dramatically changed with the upraise of India's
domestic air carriers within recent years, resulting in sharp increase of domestic and foreign
tourist arrivals to the archipelagos sole airport at Port Blair (The National Portal of India,
2009).
Tourism policy framework
According to the Draft Tourism Policy for A&N Islands (11/2008) up to recently it has been
the A&N Directorate of Tourism itself acting as a major provider of tourist services (e.g.
government resorts), rather than a facilitator and regulator. Though the directorate has
initiated its first national promotion campaign in 2004, a tourism development strategy has so
far been inexistent. As the A&N Tourism director states himself: "In the absence of a
specifically stated tourism policy and a strategic implementation plan the industry and the
director of tourism have muddled around in a rudderless fashion and any gains accruing are
more through serendipity than conscious effort".
However the prospects of A&N Island's steadily growing international and domestic tourism
have been recognised and responding to that a first draft has been finalized just while the time
of research. In this initial strategic step, and in order to open up investments to tourism
infrastructure and development, the directorate has declared tourism as a potential `industry'.
The overall vision for tourism development in A&N Islands as to the November 2008 Draft
Tourism Strategy is:
"To develop A&N Islands as a unique eco friendly tourist destination by promoting tourist
infrastructure of international standards through public and private sector initiatives - taking
into account the carrying capacities of the islands and limited support infrastructure - for
generating local income & revenue and local employment"
The draft already offers first indications towards a focus on the boost of organized and
regulated forms of tourism (DTP for A&NI, 2008:3) and seems therewith fully in line with
the tourism developmental direction at national level. Though the potential of adventure,
Theoretical Context Introduction to the Destination
16
nature and dive tourism has been fully recognized the encouragement of independent travel
styles remains disregarded in the draft. However, a leadoff and complete A&N Islands
Tourism Policy and development strategy is yet to be finalised.
2.3 Destination Havelock Island
2.3.1 Location
Havelock, the study area of this paper,
has an area of some 92 km² and is the
largest of the islands which comprise
Ritchie's Archipelago, a chain of islands
to the east of Great Andaman in the
Andaman Islands. Havelock is situated
57 km north East of capital city Port
Blair (Wikipedia, 2009e).
Map 3: The Andaman Archipelago and Havelock Island
Source: Modified Internet Source. Exact source unknown
2.3.2 Population
Today it is mainly inhabited by Bengali settlers that were introduced to the Island in the 1960s
in for driving agriculture and forestry in the Archipelago. Population, roughly, is around 6000.
Traditional income sources are subsistence farming and fishing. Details with regard to
economic situation and tourism development on Havelock will be presented as part of this
paper's qualitative research findings (cf. Section 7.2.1).
2.3.3 Landscape and infrastructure
According to personal experiences of the author the island is widely covered in primary
forest, only some lowland areas are utilized for agricultural purposes. There are six villages
on the Island, none has a name, but all are numbered. The central market place is in Village
No.3, the only jetty in village No.1. There are a hospital, school, police station and post office.
Bank or ATM do not yet exist. In total there are 6 beaches, numbered One to Seven, Beach
Four is inexistent. The island has one road and a public bus circling on a vague schedule.
Theoretical Context Backpacker defining criteria and typology
17
3. Backpacker defining criteria & typologies
According to the WTO (cf. OECD, 2002) a tourist defines as follows:
" Tourists are people who are travelling to and staying in places outside their usual
environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes
not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited"
Within this definition some first subdivisions emerge, particularly the purpose of travelling,
whether for leisure, business or other, appears as a central criterion on which to distinguish
forms of tourism. Farther the definition imposes first restrictions to travel time (one year) and
economic activities while travelling. Therefore and as proved later in this paper, an exact
application of WTO's definition of Tourists onto the backpacker context may be difficult.
Nonetheless, and as the focus of this paper is on backpacker travel, the leisure forms of
tourism are paid more attention. Cohen (1972) was the first to develop a typology of different
tourist types referring to the recreational category. His model is now taken into focus in order
to arrange the phenomenon of contemporary backpacking into a theoretical context.
3.1 Cohen's tourist typology
Cohen (1972) distinguishes between institutionalized and non institutionalized tourists that
are subdivided into two categories, respectively.
3.1.1 The Organized Mass Tourist
One Institutionalized role is typified by the organized mass tourist, showing a preference for
being confined to an environmental bubble - a microenvironment of his home country, out of
which he rarely steps. The organized mass tourist is the least adventurous, does almost no
decisions for himself. His trip is packaged in advance, all his stops are well prepared and
planned. Familiarity is at a maximum, novelty at a minimum.
Theoretical Context Backpacker defining criteria and typology
18
3.1.2 The Individual Mass Tourist
Cohen's Institutionalized roles also feature the individual mass tourist, who makes
arrangements for transportation through an agency, choosing low risk and familiar situations
when planning itineraries. However, compared to the organized mass tourist his tour is not
entirely pre-planned, a certain amount of control over time and itinerary remains with the
tourist, and he is not bound to a group. He too is confined to the `western cultural bubble' but
steps out occasionally into well charted territory. Familiarity is still dominant, but the
experience of novelty is greater, though often of routine kind.
Non institutionalized roles identified by Cohen include the `explorer' and the `drifter' Both
share values like spontaneity, novelty, risk and independence. Both arrange their trips
individually.
3.1.3 The Explorer
The explorer, though looking for as much off the beaten track experience as possible, falls
back to comfortable accommodation and reliable means of transport. He leaves the
environmental bubble far more often than institutionalized tourists, but is careful to be able to
step back when things are getting too rough. Association with host culture is characteristic,
also the explorer tries to speak their language. Novelty dominates, but the explorer does not
immerse himself fully into the host society.
3.1.4 The Drifter
The drifter ventures furthest from the beaten track and the accustomed way of life of his home
country. He tends to make the trip wholly on his own and ordinary tourist experiences are
considered phony. The drifter has no fixed itinerary or timetable and no well defined goals of
travel. He is almost wholly immersed into host culture, shares habits, food and shelter with
the people he visits. Familiarity here is at its lowest, novelty at its highest.
Theoretical Context Backpacker defining criteria and typology
19
3.2 Riley's defining criteria of independent travellers (1988)
Riley (1988) describes the phenomenon of independent travel referring to a type of tourist that
performs a non institutionalized role, but is neither clearly a drifter nor an explorer as defined
by Cohen (1972). Examining the Australian youth travel phenomenon, she called this type of
tourist "long term budget travellers", following terminology most frequently used by the
travellers themselves and being less derogatory than `difter' at the same time. The term
already reveals two major criteria, the long travel time and the low budgets this tourist type
travels on.
According to Riley the label `budget traveller' defines people desirous of extending their
travels beyond that of a cyclical holiday, hence, living on a budget becomes a necessity (cf.
Riley, 1988:317). They are of middle class origin and primarily in their late twenties or early
thirties. Often they are at a junction in life and motivated by escape from monotony of
everyday routines, jobs and making career decisions or seeking to postpone work, marriage or
other responsibilities. They use time travelling to clear mind before taking important
decisions. Other reasons for travel are search for real freedom, adventures in exotic places and
different natural and cultural settings.
Unlike Cohen's drifters Riley does not define budget travellers being part of a counter culture.
They do not drift aimlessly, nor do they beg. The budget traveller is no more hedonistic or
anarchistic than other members of the western culture (cf. Riley, 1988:318). However,
parallels to Cohen's drifters are apparent, such as the low travel budget and a flexible, non
pre-planned itinerary.
Riley farther states the emergence of a subculture with distinct values. Respect is being paid
to those travelling on a low budget, getting the `best bargain', visiting remote and exotic
locations while taking into account strains and efforts to reach the same. A common
characteristic is the avoidance of mass tourist destinations due to their higher price levels and
lower authenticity ("too touristy").
Theoretical Context Backpacker defining criteria and typology
20
3.3 Defining criteria of contemporary backpackers
Out of Riley's (1988) characteristics of `long term budget travellers' the term backpacker has
emerged, mainly as a label for a distinct way of travelling rather than a specific type of tourist
or a piece of luggage. Up to now there is no general and commonly accepted definition to be
found in the scientific literature. However, this must be due to the heterogeneity of the
backpacker itself, covering the entire spectrum between `Traditional Long Term Budget
Traveller' and `Mainstream Backpacker', which are described later in this paper.
3.3.1 Pearce's defining criteria of backpackers (1990)
Pearce (1990) introduced the term "backpacker" to scientific literature as an interpretation of
the travel style of young budget travellers in Australia. The term appeared less derogatory
than `drifter' and yet more succinct than `long term budget traveller'. Pearce's work is
significant in that the term backpacker is not simply semantic variation but indicates the
fundamental shift of the term from a de-marketing label to a marketing tool in Australia
(Ateljevic and Doorne, 2004). Pearce identified common 5 criteria for defining the
backpacker in contrast to ordinary tourists, hence defining a set of characteristics which form
a basis for - and have been advanced by future researchers:
· Preference for budget accommodation
· An emphasis on meeting other people
· An independently organized and flexible travel schedule
· Longer rather than brief holidays
· An emphasis on informal and participatory holiday activities
Preference for budget accommodation
A strong aim for budget accommodation is seen the most decisive when it comes to defining
the backpacker. By cutting back on comfort and expense for accommodation backpackers aim
at extending their overall travel time and involving in exceptional (expensive) activities.
Inexpensive accommodation may be homes of friends and relatives, backpacker hostels, camp
grounds or youth hostels (cf. Loker-Murphy and Pearce, 1995:832).
Theoretical Context Backpacker defining criteria and typology
21
Emphasis on meeting other people
Backpackers are keen to encounter other travellers, as they are to get into contact with local
people. By meeting fellow backpackers experiences are shared with like minded individuals
and travel information is being exchanged, underlining the importance of word of mouth
recommendation among travellers. By meeting local people and characters backpackers seek
to understand lifestyle and culture of the host country and identify differences to their home
country (cf. Loker-Murphy- and Pearce 1995:834).
Independently organized and flexible travel schedule
Prepaid and packed travel is unpopular among backpackers as they are following a flexible
and independent itinerary, with decisions about where to go next and how long to stay in a
specific place often being made spontaneously. This is supported by the importance of word
of mouth recommendations from other travellers, allowing to adapt travel schedules according
to advice of fellow backpackers (cf. Loker-Murphy and Pearce, 1995: 835).
Longer rather than brief holidays
Backpackers extend their travel to a maximum, allowing them to flexibly adapt their itinerary
and visit `off the beaten path' locations ordinary tourists do not visit. The long travel time
farther allows him to cover large distances and remain in specific locations for extended time
(cf. Loker-Murphy and Pearce, 1995: 836).
Emphasis on informal and participatory holiday activities
Backpackers seek for unconventional, often sportive-, adventurous- and eco activities. While
travelling their flexible itinerary allows them to visit multiple natural settings and to
participate in a broad range of activities, from bushwalking, snorkelling, scuba diving, sailing
to exotic ventures like sky diving or bungee jumping. Expensive exceptional activities may be
done `once in a lifetime' only, whereas less exotic ventures are likely to being participated in
different locations on a backpacker's trip (cf. Loker-Murphy and Pearce, 1995:836).
Theoretical Context Backpacker defining criteria and typology
22
Conclusion
Concluding Pearce's criteria it appears that the backpacker is best defined socially rather than
in economic terms. Backpacking is an approach to travel rather than a categorization of
expenses spent or age or nationality profiles (Loker, 1993:3). It is the way to travel, seeking
high levels of interaction with hosts, a lack of travel structure and high degree of
independence, and the use of low cost, less comfortable facilities while searching for
authentic experiences and adventuresome activities that describes the phenomenon of
backpacking.
3.3.2 Ateljevic & Doorne's defining criteria of backpackers (2000)
Following Pearce's 5 basic criteria for defining `The Backpacker' a homogenous picture of
backpackers comes into appearance, though does not portray the diverse reality of
contemporary backpacking.
A number of researchers have attempted to farther subdivide the heterogeneous group of
backpackers, Loker-Murphy (1996) segmented a backpacker population according to their
motivational psychographics, she divided into social `excitement seekers', `escapers/relaxers',
`achievers' and `self developers'. Ross (1997) or Mohsin and Ryan (2003) have made similar
attempts to categorize backpackers from a motivational perspective, with each study
providing a new approach to classification.
However, a more holistic model has been brought up by Ateljevic and Doorne (2000), who in
their New Zealand study about motivations and values of backpackers reveal a continuum of
values articulating as travel styles and consumer behaviour. Both juxtapose traditional and
contemporary contexts of backpacking and developed a model which is here taken into focus
in order to classify the Indian backpacker, as uncovered later in this study. Their model
describes `traditional backpackers' seeking to escape the western consumer model whereas
`contemporary backpackers' transplant this model into their travel style. Their backpacker
types form two poles on two opposite ends of a spectrum, the reality, however, would present
a continuum of backpackers moving somewhere in between both poles. The characteristics of
Ateljevic and Doorne's two extreme types are summarized in Chart 4.
Theoretical Context Backpacker defining criteria and typology
23
Traditional Long Term Budget Traveller
Mainstream Backpacker
Travel as escape from the monotony and
pressure of daily routines and in order to
open up new perspectives in life (e.g. after
school/ University, after quitting a job,
after split up of relationships)
Travel in order to satisfy thirst for
adventure, as a change to everyday life
and to participate in `once in a lifetime
activities'. As many experiences for as
little as possible money, often older
travellers with flexible itineraries as well
as young adults (students, party goers)
Travel in search for nostalgia e.g.
nature, authentic lifestyles and local
(foreign) cultures
Travelling as part of a new global lifestyle,
meeting of like minded people but little
interest in local cultures. Group of
travellers as social environment
Long sojourn times in specific locations
overall travel length indefinite
Short sojourn times, overall travel length
from two to three weeks up to three
months
Combination of work and travel (e.g. on
farms) in order to extend travel length by
earning extra money
No work while travelling. Money for
travelling has been put aside prior to
departure.
Desire to immerse partly into host society
Travel in an `environmental bubble'
No fixed travel schedule, spontaneity,
flexibility and freedom are characteristic
for the travel style
Use of flexible but somehow organized
packages of special operators
Travel with public transport systems,
hitch, bicycle or own vehicle
Travel with backpacker buses
Conventional tourist attractions and
routes are being avoided
Visiting of `important' sights as a necessity
Chart 4: Traditional Long Term Budget Traveller versus Mainstream Backpacker
Layout: Till Müller
Source: Modified after Ateljevic and Doorne, 2000:77 et sqq.
Theoretical Context Backpacker defining criteria and typology
24
3.3.3 Contrasting Ateljevic & Doorne's backpacker types with
Cohen's tourist typology
A definite positioning of Ateljevic and Doorne's backpackers into Cohen's (1972) tourist
typology does not seem viable. As described above today's backpacker cover a spectrum of
individual characteristics ranging from `Mainstream Backpackers' at one end to `Traditional
Long Term Budget Travellers' at the other. As a clear positioning does not seem viable both
extremes will be contrasted with Cohen's forms of institutionalized and non-institutionalized
tourists. Individual facets of the modern backpacker phenomenon will therefore have to be
positioned in between both poles.
The `Traditional Long Term Budget Traveller' as described by Ateljevic and Doorne shares a
number of characteristics with Cohen's `Drifter Tourists'. Like drifters the Long Term Budget
Traveller has a flexible approach to travel time and itinerary, tries to immerse into host culture
and does not reject incidental work in order to extend his journey. He travels on a very budget
and is not interested in common tourist attractions.
The Mainstream Backpacker on the other hand may best be compared what Cohen describes
an Individual Mass Tourist. He only occasionally leaves his `western cultural bubble' and
shows little interest in local culture. Though remaining certain flexibility with regard to
itinerary and travel schedule he does purchase (backpacker oriented) travel and transport
packages and regards visiting the major tourist attractions as a must.
Theoretical Context The backpacker enclave
25
4. Defining criteria with regard to the study area
With regard to identifying the current tourism developmental status of the survey area
(Havelock Island) and its subsequent positing into an existing theoretic model later in this
work, light is shed on the theoretic nature of backpacker enclaves on one hand and the
evolution of tourist destinations on the other.
4.1 The backpacker enclave
Backpackers tend to share `mental maps' of backpacker destinations that are reinforced by
ways of oral communication while travelling, it appears that a great majority of young
contemporary travellers spend most of their time in various such `enclaves' (Cohen, 2004). In
response to that the term "Backpacker Enclave" has been brought up, though is used freely
(Howard 2007). The original meaning of the term `enclave' refers to a confined area,
inhabited by a particular group of people (Wikipedia, 2009f). Applied onto the backpacker
context it describes an area that is frequented by independent travellers. To the backpacker the
enclave fulfils a parallel function as does a resort to the mass tourism vacationist (Cohen,
2004), though backpackers may use the same enclaves in different ways. A reason for the
popularity of many enclaves is their status as `safe havens' backpackers can retreat to in order
to counter the strangeness of the host country (Hottala, 2005; Richards and Wilson, 2006).
Following the loose defining criteria of Howard (2007) a backpacker enclave defines as
follows:
A sizeable area with distinct geographic boundaries, partly patronized by backpacker tourists.
It features at least 10 relatively closely spaced and inexpensive accommodating facilities of
any size, partly used by backpackers. The archetypical enclave has a definite character, is
predominantly tourist oriented and exclusively caters to drifter tourists. It is self contained,
with all traveller activities there. Price levels are very low. However, specific instances vary
in typicality.
Theoretical Context The backpacker enclave
26
4.2 Forms and types of backpacker enclaves
Backpacker enclaves come along in sheer variety throughout the world. Depending on
location and specific setting they may vary along a number of dimensions, such as size,
centrality of location, host nations culture, visa policies and others (Howard 2007). Along
those dimensions researchers have suggested various useful typologies of enclaves (e.g.
Cohen, 2004; Howard, 2005). Hence backpacker enclaves must be described to be everything
but a homogenous phenomenon.
4.2.3 Urban and Rural Enclaves
Cohen (2004) cites urban and rural enclaves, differing in their function in a backpacker's trip
and the nature of services provided. The former are much more commercialized and serve
instrumental purposes, like organizing onward travels and making purchases. Travellers are
often forced to surpass urban enclaves, whereas rural ones may be destinations of choice.
Rural enclaves are more demarcated than urban ones, activities are more important to the
visitor and the interaction between traveller and locals is more intense. Also backpackers tend
to stay longer in rural enclaves than in urban ones.
4.2.4 Functional and Destinational Enclaves
Howard (2005) suggests functional and destinational types. A functional enclave would be
used rather for convenience, e.g. organizing onward travel or simply for its budget
accommodation. It is often situated along well trodden backpacker routes and may show
characteristics of a hub. The destinational enclave would be visited for a specific attraction,
such as a beach. In contrast to functional enclaves it is often located isolated. The
classification may or may not coincide with Cohen's urban and rural types.
4.2.5 Concentrated and Dispersed Enclaves
Other possible types are concentrated and dispersed enclaves (Howard, 2007). From a spatial
perspective the concentrated enclave functions more like a bubble, providing all tourist
facilities closely packed. It offers all essential services to cater to backpacker tourists, such as
travel agents, accommodation, bar, internet access, restaurants and so on. Dispersed enclaves
in return scatter over a larger area, tourist businesses would share the same space with many
non tourist businesses and residences.
Theoretical Context The backpacker enclave
27
4.3 The evolutionary paths of backpacker enclaves
A Backpacker enclave does not emerge fully developed like a planned tourist resort, it
evolves step by step, commonly expanding from one or two accommodating facilities. With
increasing visitors more guesthouses/hotels open, followed by internet cafés, travel agents and
other tourism related businesses (Howard, 2007). The development of an enclave builds on
locational advantages of a site or area that, in combination with basic infrastructure, start to
appeal to tourists who make their own arrangements. Gradually, an enclave may establish its
presence in the market (Papatherodou 2004:231).
4.3.1 Butler's Tourist Area Life Cycle (TALC) Model
One possible way to describe the evolution of enclaves is to apply the Tourist Area Life Cycle
Model (TALC) positing various stages of development of a tourist destination over a logisitic
curve, consisting of six stages from exploration, to eventual post-stagnation (Butler, 1980).
Over these distinct periods there are notable changes in the tourism groups, the available
infrastructure, the natural and built environment the attitude of local people towards tourism.
The cumulative effects of these changes express in alternative scenarios in the post stagnation
stage of a tourist area or enclave. Backpacker enclaves may grow or shrink, may go upmarket
(as with Goa) or may decline as foreign tourist destination and cater mostly for locals
(Howard, 2007). An enclave may even disappear, e.g. after government crackdowns
(Westernhausen, 2002).
With regard to position the destination Havelock Island into an existing model a close look is
put on the evolutionary stages of tourist enclaves and the Tourist Area Lifecycle Model
(TALC). Butler describes the following 6 stages of a tourist area development cycle:
Exploration Stage
The exploration stage of a tourist area is characterized by a small number of tourists making
individual travel arrangements. Cohen's explorers would be the typical type. At this time
there would be no specific facilities provided for tourists. As the use of local facilities is
common host culture interaction is very high. This fact itself may be a significant attraction to
some visitors. At this time, the impacts (social, economical, environmental) of tourism onto
the area and its population would be very low (Butler, 1980:7).
Theoretical Context The backpacker enclave
28
Involvement Stage
The involvement stage comes along with an increase of visitor numbers assuming some
regularity. Local residents will be starting to enter into the scene and begin to provide
facilities primarily or even exclusively catering to visitors. A basic initial market area for
visitors can be defined. Host culture interaction remains high from a visitor perspective, and
even increases for locals involved in catering to visitors. With progressing development a
tourist season emerges, local advertisement promotes tourist products. Residents involved in
tourism will undergo a change in social patterns. Tourist travel arrangements can be expected
some level of organization and pressure is put up on public agencies to improve or provide
transport and other tourist facilities (Butler, 1980:7-8).
Development Stage
The development stage is outlined by heavy marketing in tourist generating areas. Local
involvement and control are declining rapidly as business and control is taken over by
external organizations. Large scale and more up-to-date facilities substitute local facilities.
Natural and cultural attractions are marketed specifically and changes in the physical
appearance of the area will be noticeable. In peak season visitor numbers can outbalance local
residents. Imported (seasonal) labour will be utilized and tourist auxiliary facilities will
appear. This stage often comes along with a change in tourist types towards Cohen's
institutionalized tourist (Butler, 1980:8).
Consolidation Stage
The consolidation stage describes a decline in increase of visitor numbers, though still
growing. Large parts of the local economies will be tied to tourism. Marketing and promotion
will be wide reaching and chains and franchises in the tourist industry appear. The overall
development will most likely arouse opposition among permanent residents (Butler, 1980:8).
Stagnation Stage
The stagnation stage comes along with attendant social, environmental and economic
problems, and visitor numbers have reached its peak. The image of the area will be well
established, but it will be out of fashion. There will be heavy reliance on repeat visitors.
Natural and genuine attractions will be superseded by artificial attractions and new
Details
- Seiten
- Erscheinungsform
- Originalausgabe
- Jahr
- 2009
- ISBN (eBook)
- 9783842812840
- DOI
- 10.3239/9783842812840
- Dateigröße
- 2.5 MB
- Sprache
- Englisch
- Institution / Hochschule
- Fachhochschule Eberswalde – Wirtschaft, Studiengang Nachhaltiger Tourismus
- Erscheinungsdatum
- 2011 (März)
- Note
- 1,9
- Schlagworte
- individualtourismus entwicklungsländer rucksacktourismus indien
