'Does Self-Compassion increase the Authenticity of a leader?'
How Self-Compassion can enhance Authentic Leadership Development
©2013
Masterarbeit
88 Seiten
Zusammenfassung
In the face of today’s business challenges, the demand for a more genuine leadership style is arising. Authentic Leadership as a way to authentically relate to oneself and others is meant to create meaning, trust and confidence amongst followers. At the same time, the Buddhist concept of Self-Compassion is becoming popular in the Western academic world. This study offers first insights into the relationship between Authentic Leadership and Self-Compassion. Theoretical similarities and connections between the two constructs are being presented. An online study (N=50) got conducted, asking young professionals from the international student organization ‘AIESEC’ about Authentic Leadership attributes and self-compassionate behaviours. Data analysis showed a weak positive correlation between Authentic Leadership and Self-Compassion. Methodical limitations of the study are being demonstrated. Implications for Authentic Leadership research and practice are being discussed, concluding that Self-Compassion could enhance the theoretical operationalization of authenticity as well as the intense process of Authentic Leadership Development.
Leseprobe
Inhaltsverzeichnis
2
Acknowledgements
The
completion
of
this
dissertation
would
not
have
been
possible
without
the
constant
support
of
my
supervisor
and
Ayleen
Wisudha,
who
was
a
catalyst
of
new
ideas
and
a
source
of
valuable
feedback.
The
overall
design
of
the
Master's
curriculum
brought
me
clarity
about
my
own
professional
interests
and
passions,
which
led
to
the
choice
of
this
topic.
My
gratitude
therefore
goes
to
everyone
involved
in
teaching
and
support
of
our
course.
I
also
want
to
thank
my
friends
and
family,
who
guided
me
throughout
the
process
with
the
never-
ending
belief
that
I
would
create
great
work.
3
I.
Executive
summary
In
the
face
of
today's
business
challenges,
the
demand
for
a
more
genuine
leadership
style
is
arising.
Authentic
Leadership
as
a
way
to
authentically
relate
to
oneself
and
others
is
meant
to
create
meaning,
trust
and
confidence
amongst
followers.
At
the
same
time,
the
Buddhist
concept
of
Self-
Compassion
is
becoming
popular
in
the
Western
academic
world.
This
study
offers
first
insights
into
the
relationship
between
Authentic
Leadership
and
Self-
Compassion.
Theoretical
similarities
and
connections
between
the
two
constructs
are
being
presented.
An
online
study
(N=50)
got
conducted,
asking
young
professionals
from
the
international
student
organization
`AIESEC'
about
Authentic
Leadership
attributes
and
self-
compassionate
behaviours.
Data
analysis
showed
a
weak
positive
correlation
between
Authentic
Leadership
and
Self-
Compassion.
Methodical
limitations
of
the
study
are
being
demonstrated.
Implications
for
Authentic
Leadership
research
and
practice
are
being
discussed,
concluding
that
Self-
Compassion
could
enhance
the
theoretical
operationalization
of
authenticity
as
well
as
the
intense
process
of
Authentic
Leadership
Development.
4
II.
Table
of
contents
I.
Executive
summary
...
3
1.
Review
of
the
literature
...
6
1.1.
Authentic
Leadership
...
6
1.1.1.
Today's
business
world:
In
need
of
authenticity
...
6
1.1.2.
Characteristics
of
Authentic
Leaders
...
7
1.1.3.
Positive
impact
of
Authentic
Leadership
on
followers
...
10
1.1.4.
Authentic
Leadership
and
other
leadership
theories
...
11
1.2.
Authentic
Leadership
and
Self-
Compassion
...
12
1.2.1.
Self-
Compassion
as
a
construct
...
13
1.2.2.
Self-
Compassion
and
other
self-
related
constructs
in
Authentic
Leadership
...
14
1.2.2.1.
Self-
Compassion
and
embracing
vulnerability:
accepting
weakness
...
15
1.2.2.2.
Self-
Compassion
and
self-
esteem:
intrinsic
sense
of
worthiness
...
17
1.2.3.
Hypothetical
impact
of
Self-
Compassion
on
Authentic
Leadership
...
18
2.
Study
design
...
21
2.1.
Quantitative
design
...
21
2.2.
Population:
the
international
student
organization
`AIESEC'
...
21
2.3.
Measurements
...
22
2.3.1.
Authentic
Leadership
Questionnaire
(ALQ)
...
22
2.3.2.
Self-
Compassion
Scale
(SCS)
...
23
2.4.
Ethical
considerations
...
23
3.
Findings
...
24
3.1.
Sample
characteristics
...
24
3.2.
Data
distribution
...
25
3.3.
Correlation
between
Self-
Compassion
and
Authentic
Leadership
...
26
3.4.
Summary
of
findings
...
27
4.
Discussion
...
28
4.1.
Limitations
...
28
4.1.1.
Validity
...
28
4.1.1.1.
Validity
of
measurements:
self-
rating,
social
desirability
and
self-
awareness
of
participants
...
28
4.1.1.2.
Statistical
power
of
the
study
design:
effect
size,
sample
size
and
parametric
test
requirements
...
30
4.1.1.3.
Representativeness:
AIESEC
Alumni
in
the
European
Union
...
32
4.1.2.
Reliability
of
online
measurements:
internal
and
external
disruptive
variables
...
33
4.1.4.
Theoretical
limitations
of
the
study
...
34
4.2.
Contributions
...
35
4.2.1.
Theoretical
implications
for
Authentic
Leadership:
Self-
Compassion
as
contributor
to
operationalize
authenticity
...
35
4.2.2.
Practical
implications
for
Authentic
Leadership:
Self-
Compassion
as
major
component
for
Authentic
Leadership
Development
...
38
5.
Recommendations
...
40
III.
References
...
43
IV.
Appendices
...
47
IV.1.
Ethics
Approval
Letter
...
47
IV.2.
Overview
of
approached
population
...
48
5
IV.3.
Measurements
...
49
IV.3.1.
Questionnaire
introduction
...
49
IV.3.2.
Demographic
questions
...
50
IV.3.3.
Authentic
Leadership
Questionnaire
copyright
...
54
IV.3.4.
Authentic
Leadership
Questionnaire
online
terms
of
use
...
55
IV.3.5.
Self-
Compassion
Scale
...
56
IV.4.
Sample
characteristics
...
57
IV.4.1.
Overview
about
demographic
data
...
57
IV.4.2.
Age
distribution
...
60
IV.4.3.
Geographic
Region
...
60
IV.4.4.
Educational
background
...
61
IV.4.5.
Number
of
team
members
...
61
IV.4.6.
Leadership
experience
in
years
...
62
IV.4.7.
Size
of
organization
...
62
IV.4.8.
Occupational
background
...
63
IV.5.
Statistical
analysis
...
63
IV.5.1.
Descriptive
graphs
...
63
IV.5.2.
Inferential
analysis
of
the
data
...
64
IV.5.2.1.
Correlation:
Self-
Compassion
and
Authentic
Leadership
...
64
IV.5.2.2.
Correlation:
Self-
Kindness
and
Ethical/Moral
...
64
IV.5.2.3.
Correlation:
Self-
Kindness
and
Balanced
Processing
...
65
IV.5.2.4.
Correlation:
Common
Humanity
and
Ethical/Moral
...
65
IV.5.2.5.
Correlation:
Common
Humanity
and
Balanced
Processing
...
66
IV.5.2.6.
Correlation:
Mindfulness
and
Ethical/Moral
...
66
IV.5.2.7.
Correlation:
Mindfulness
and
Balanced
Processing
...
67
IV.5.2.8.
Correlation:
Self-
Compassion
and
Ethical/Moral
...
67
IV.5.2.9.
Correlation:
Self-
Compassion
and
Balanced
Processing
...
68
IV.5.2.10.
Correlation:
Authentic
Leadership
and
Common
Humanity
...
68
IV.5.2.11.
Correlation:
Authentic
Leadership
and
Mindfulness
...
69
IV.5.3.
Correlations
for
different
sub-
groups
...
69
IV.5.3.1.
Overview
...
69
IV.5.3.2.
Male
sample
...
70
IV.5.3.3.
Female
sample
...
70
IV.5.3.4.
Age
less
than
30
years
...
71
IV.5.3.5.
Age
more
than
30
years
...
71
IV.5.3.6.
Active
AIESECers
...
72
IV.5.3.7.
Alumni
...
72
IV.5.3.8.
Team
size
2-
12
people
...
73
IV.5.3.9.
Team
size
over
12
people
...
73
IV.5.3.10.
Less
than
1
year
of
leadership
experience
...
74
IV.5.3.11.
2-
5
years
of
leadership
experience
...
74
IV.5.3.12.
Over
5
years
of
leadership
experience
...
75
IV.5.3.13.
Company
size
1-
100
people
...
75
IV.5.3.14.
Company
size
over
100
people
...
76
IV.5.3.15.
European
Union
...
76
IV.5.3.16.
South
America
...
77
IV.5.3.17.
Africa
...
77
IV.5.3.18.
Asia
...
78
IV.5.3.19.
Education
&
Training
occupations
...
78
IV.5.3.20.
Management
occupations
...
79
IV.5.3.21.
Business
&
Financial
occupations
...
79
IV.6.
Terms
of
reference
...
80
IV.6.1.
TOR
Version
I
...
80
IV.6.2.
TOR
Version
II
...
84
1.
Review
of
literature
1.1.
Authentic
Leadership
6
1.
Review
of
literature
1.1.
Authentic
Leadership
1.1.1.
Today's
business
world:
In
need
of
authenticity
`Collaborating
with
another
human
--
especially
a
team
of
humans
--
is
messy,
deeply
personal,
profoundly
meaningful
stuff,
and
it
should
be
treated
as
such.
Personally
speaking,
if
you're
working
with
me,
I
know
we've
come
together
to
do
two
things.
One:
Evolve
as
humans.
Two:
Make
great
stuff
for
the
world.
Sometimes
it's
unclear
as
to
which
is
which,
and
I'm
good
with
that'
(Danielle
La
Porte,
2013).
This
charmingly
candid
quote
by
business
coach
and
speaker
Danielle
LaPorte
puts
unequivocally
into
words
what
today's
business
world
is
in
need
of:
a
more
human
way
of
relating
to
each
other,
creating
individual
and
organizational
purpose.
The
challenges
are
numerous:
the
economic
climate
is
characterized
by
never-
known
transformations
such
as
new
technologies,
new
market
demands
and
global
competition.
Human
beings
in
the
workplace
are
faced
with
high
levels
of
uncertainty
and
complexity.
Job
roles
are
becoming
ambiguous,
and
change
is
a
constant
companion
in
organizations.
Leaders
who
decide
to
look
for
their
own
advantage
rather
than
taking
the
overall
organizational
well-
being
into
consideration
cause
deep
resignation
and
mistrust
amongst
employees
and
citizens
(May
et
al.,
2003).
In
this
uncertain
environment,
a
new
demand
for
genuine
leadership
is
arising.
The
lack
of
public
trust
in
business
and
political
leaders
can
have
dangerous
consequences
for
the
privileges
of
our
capitalistic
system,
which
is
why
the
development
of
leaders
who
treat
people
as
the
basis
of
their
business
success,
not
as
another
cost
of
doing
business,
is
1.
Review
of
literature
1.1.
Authentic
Leadership
7
essential
(George,
2007).
People
seek
for
meaning
and
connection
in
their
daily
working
life,
searching
for
leaders
who
can
restore
trust,
confidence,
hope,
optimism
and
resilience.
Today's
society
is
in
need
of
veritable
and
sustained
performance
based
on
ethical
values
that
go
beyond
financial
gains
(Avolio
&
Gardner,
2005).
People
in
organizations
want
to
be
trusted
and
take
their
part
in
the
needed
leadership:
`[People
in
organizations]
are
demanding
meaning
and
significance
from
their
work,
and
are
not
willing
to
toil
away
just
for
someone
else's
benefit.
They
want
to
lead
now,
not
wait
in
line
for
10
to
20
years
until
they
are
tapped
for
a
leadership
role.'
(George,
2007,
p.
11).
The
secret
of
leading
tomorrow's
organizations
effectively
therefore
lies
in
the
development
of
authentic
leaders
who
can
surround
their
employees
amongst
a
common
purpose,
and
who
are
equally
able
to
facilitate
their
follower's
authentic
self-
expression
(Gardner
et
al.,
2011).
1.1.2.
Characteristics
of
Authentic
Leaders
To
begin
with,
we
will
describe
in
detail
how
authentic
leaders
can
be
characterized.
Going
back
to
the
roots
of
authenticity
as
a
concept,
it
firstly
occurred
in
Greek
philosophy
as
well
as
in
the
work
of
Heidegger
and
Sartre
where
the
genuine
development
of
self
and
others
was
central
(Avolio
&
Gardner,
2005).
It
may
also
be
influenced
by
the
work
of
psychologists
Carl
Rogers
and
Maslow
who
focused
on
their
research
on
self-
actualized
persons.
Being
true
to
oneself,
expressing
feelings,
thoughts,
emotions
and
beliefs
autonomously
and
independently
from
those
around
us,
was
seen
as
core
of
developing
an
authentic
self.
In
more
recent
research,
becoming
authentic
is
described
as
a
transformative,
life-
long
development
process
1.
Review
of
literature
1.1.
Authentic
Leadership
8
(George,
2007),
and
includes
the
following
characteristics:
developing
an
integrated
self
without
playing
a
role,
appreciating
other's
diversity
and
their
right
for
personal
development,
influencing
others
via
personal
interaction
and
connection,
challenging
the
context
with
the
aim
of
self-
expression,
critical
reflection
about
authenticity
and
the
aim
to
support
others
in
the
development
of
their
authenticity
for
the
greater
good
(see
Cranton
&
Carusetta,
2004,
in
the
context
of
authentic
teaching).
Coming
from
the
perspective
that
a
leader's
authenticity
emerges
from
his
life
story
and
how
he
makes
sense
of
it,
Shamir
&
Eilam
(2005)
define
the
clarity
of
a
leaders
self-
concept,
how
the
leader
defines
who
he
is,
why
and
who
he
wants
to
become,
as
the
core
of
authentic
leadership.
It
includes
that
the
leader
sees
his
leadership
role
as
a
self-
expressive
act
rather
than
a
given
position,
that
he
has
experienced
his
values
to
be
true
and
uses
them
to
guide
his
actions,
that
his
goals
are
motivated
by
an
internal
commitment
based
on
a
personal
cause
and
that
he
seeks
for
self-
verification
rather
than
admiration.
W.
George
(2007),
professor
at
Harvard
Business
School
and
former
chairman
and
CEO,
conducted
one
of
the
largest
in-
depth
studies
about
how
leaders
develop,
including
interviews
with
125
leaders
from
all
areas
and
backgrounds.
Congruent
with
the
life-
story
approach
of
Shamir
&
Eilam
(2005),
the
study
revealed
that
what
made
those
leaders
successful
came
from
earlier
life
experiences
that
created
their
mission.
George
(2007)
describes
the
authentic
self
as
who
we
are
at
our
deepest
level,
where
our
satisfaction
comes
from,
being
our
reference
point
in
a
rapidly
changing
world.
Based
on
the
described
internal
and
highly
personal
processes,
several
attempts
to
define
common
traits
of
an
authentic
leader
personality
have
been
made.
A
definition
developed
by
Walumbwa
et
al.
(2008)
is
both
respected
and
used
in
the
academic
world
to
describe
behavioural
aspects
of
Authentic
Leadership,
which
is
why
it
will
serve
as
the
basis
for
this
dissertation.
Walumbwa
et
al.
(2008)
suggest
four
traits
to
describe
an
authentic
leader,
measurable
with
the
Authentic
Leadership
Questionnaire
(ALQ):
1.
Review
of
literature
1.1.
Authentic
Leadership
9
a) Self
Awareness:
To
what
degree
is
the
leader
aware
of
his
or
her
strengths,
limitations,
how
others
see
him
or
her
and
how
the
leader
impacts
others?
Is
the
leader
aware
of
his
own
vulnerabilities
and
deals
with
them
openly,
does
he
make
them
transparent
and
turn
them
into
strength,
making
sure
that
everybody
knows
what
or
what
not
to
expect
from
him?
Self-
awareness
describes
a
continuous
process
where
the
individual
gains
insight
into
what
constitutes
their
existence,
such
as
unique
talents,
gifts,
strengths,
core
beliefs,
values,
and
desires
(Avolio
&
Gardner,
2005).
b)
Transparency:
To
what
degree
does
the
leader
reinforce
a
level
of
openness
with
others
that
provides
them
with
an
opportunity
to
be
forthcoming
with
their
ideas,
challenges
and
opinions?
Does
the
leader
inspire
others
to
action
in
modelling
confidence,
hope
and
resiliency?
Does
he
"walk
his
talk"?
Does
he
consistently
build
authenticity
in
his
associates,
helping
them
to
build
their
psychological
capacity
and
strength?
Authentic
follower
development
happens
in
a
developmental
process
for
both
sides,
relating
to
each
other
more
and
more
authentically
(Avolio
&
Gardner,
2005).
c) Ethical/Moral:
To
what
degree
does
the
leader
set
a
high
standard
for
moral
and
ethical
conduct?
Does
he
show
integrity
between
his
personal
values
and
those
demonstrated
in
his
working
life?
Is
he
guided
by
a
set
of
values
that
follow
what
is
right
for
his
team
or
organization?
May
et
al.
(2003)
describe
that
authentic
leaders
are
those
who
own
a
heightened
level
of
moral
capacity:
they
acknowledge
their
role
as
including
ethical
responsibility
and
they
recognize
the
intensity
of
moral
situations.
1.
Review
of
literature
1.1.
Authentic
Leadership
10
d)
Balanced
Processing:
To
what
degree
does
the
leader
solicit
sufficient
opinions
and
viewpoints
prior
to
making
important
decisions
in
order
to
be
seen
as
fair
and
just?
Is
the
leader
able
to
judge
issues
and
moral
dilemmas
from
all
angles
without
loosing
credibility?
Does
he
explore
alternative
ways
of
approaching
moral
dilemmas
while
still
being
seen
to
be
acting
consistent
with
his
ultimate
values
and
therefore
authentic?
Authentic
leaders
evaluate
transparently
all
alternatives;
they
consider
the
possible
consequences
of
their
decision
for
all
stakeholders
and
act
with
integrity
based
on
their
personal
values
and
former
experiences
(May
et
al.,
2003).
To
summarize,
the
four
common
traits
of
an
authentic
leader
are
a
high
level
of
self-
awareness
about
one's
own
identity
and
self,
transparency
about
decisions
and
vulnerabilities
and
therefore
authentic
follower
development,
moral
integrity
aligning
individual
values
with
overall
organizational
well-
being,
and
a
balanced
way
to
look
at
a
moral
dilemma
considering
the
consequences
for
all
stakeholders.
Authentic
leaders
are
said
to
be
especially
powerful
in
extreme
or
dangerous
situations
(Kolditz
&
Brazil,
2005),
and
authenticity
is
meant
to
have
several
positive
outcomes
on
the
leader's
psychological
health:
studies
found
that
authenticity
is
positively
correlated
with
psychological
well-
being,
self-
acceptance,
a
sense
of
purpose
and
personal
growth,
and
negatively
correlated
with
contingent
self-
esteem,
in
which
the
individual
self-
worth
depends
upon
meeting
external
measures
and
standards
(Toor
&
Ofori,
2009;
Kernis
&
Goldman,
2005).
1.1.3.
Positive
impact
of
Authentic
Leadership
on
followers
The
impact
of
authentic
leaders
on
their
followers
has
been
positively
outlined
and
explored
by
several
authors.
Numerous
publications
stated
that
Authentic
Leadership
behaviours
lead
to
high
personal
and
social
identification
with
the
leader
(Avolio
et
al.,
2004;
Ilies
et
al.,
2005)
as
well
as
to
perceived
behavioural
integrity
(Leroy
et
al.,
2012).
Those
perceptions
would
1.
Review
of
literature
1.1.
Authentic
Leadership
11
positively
impact
follower's
hope,
trust
and
positive
emotions
(Avolio
et
al.,
2004),
follower's
psychological
capital,
such
as
self-
efficacy,
optimism
and
resilience
(Rego
et
al.,
2012),
behavioral
modeling
and
increased
self-
determination
(Ilies
et
al.,
2005),
and
follower's
organizational
identification
and
stability
in
turbulent
times
(Leroy
at
al.,
2012).
As
a
result,
this
is
meant
to
increase
follower
commitment,
job
satisfaction,
meaningfulness,
engagement,
and
job
performance
(Avolio
et
al,
2004);
follower's
expressiveness,
self-
realization,
flow
experiences
and
eudaemonic
well-
being
(an
intense
state
of
self-
expression
and
liveliness);
self-
efficacy
and
self-
esteem
(Ilies
et
al,
2005);
and
employee's
creativity
as
a
source
for
organizational
innovation
(Rego
et
al,
2012).
1.1.4.
Authentic
Leadership
and
other
leadership
theories
When
comparing
Authentic
Leadership
to
other
recent
leadership
theories,
it
has
been
labelled
as
a
root
construct
for
all
forms
of
positive
leadership,
such
as
transformational,
charismatic
or
spiritual
leadership
(Avolio
&
Gardner,
2005;
May
et
al.,
2003).
Most
similarities
can
be
drawn
to
transformational
leadership
(Burns,
1978),
such
as
being
self-
aware
and
open
to
personal
development
including
a
moral
component
to
leadership.
On
the
contrary,
authentic
leaders
might
not
necessarily
transform
their
followers
into
leaders
themselves,
but
rather
nurture
a
community
of
followers
who
belief
in
the
purpose
of
their
organization.
Compared
to
charismatic
leadership,
where
impression
management
plays
an
important
role,
an
authentic
leader
rather
leads
by
creating
meaning
and
connection
for
themselves
and
others.
In
spiritual
leadership,
no
clear
empiric
research
background
is
evident,
whereas
Authentic
Leadership
research
draws
from
clinic,
positive
and
social
psychology
(Avolio
&
Gardner,
2005).
1.
Review
of
literature
1.2.
Authentic
Leadership
and
Self-
Compassion
12
`Authentic
leaders
are
not
necessarily
transformational,
visionary,
or
charismatic
leaders.
They
don't
stand
out
every
day.
But
these
are
the
leaders
who,
when
called
upon
by
the
hand
of
fate,
will
be
the
ones
who
take
a
stand
that
changes
the
course
of
history
for
others,
be
they
organizations,
departments
or
just
other
individuals.'
(May
et
al.,
2003,
p.
248).
It
seems
that
Authentic
Leadership
adds
a
deeper
layer
to
leadership
research,
as
it
does
not
primarily
describe
traits
or
contents
of
values
of
a
leader,
but
rather
a
way
of
being
in
one's
leadership
in
an
authentic
and
deeply
self-
fulfilling
way
(Shamir
&
Eilam,
2005).
1.2.
Authentic
Leadership
and
Self-
Compassion
After
having
given
a
short
overview
about
current
needs
for
Authentic
Leadership,
characteristics
of
authentic
leaders,
authentic
leaders'
impact
on
followers
and
a
brief
orientation
in
the
context
of
other
leadership
theories,
we
will
now
focus
on
the
self-
related
qualities
that
underlie
Authentic
Leadership.
As
mentioned
by
several
authors
in
the
field,
the
development
of
authenticity
and
therefore
authentic
leadership
is
a
very
intense,
highly
personal
and
life-
long
developmental
process,
as
it
involves
all
parts
of
one's
being
-
including
personal
weaknesses,
vulnerabilities,
and
confronting
painful
experiences
from
one's
past
(see
Shamir
&
Eilam,
2005).
It
takes
immense
courage
and
daily
practice
to
fully
embrace
and
acknowledge
one's
authentic
self
with
both
flaws
and
natural
talents.
Still,
there
is
little
agreement
on
the
core
constructs
and
underlying
psychological
processes
responsible
for
the
increased
authenticity
of
a
leader.
This
study
attempts
to
increase
the
understanding
and
development
of
authenticity
and
authentic
leadership
behaviours
in
bringing
a
new
concept
into
Authentic
Leadership
research:
the
construct
of
Self-
Compassion.
1.
Review
of
literature
1.2.
Authentic
Leadership
and
Self-
Compassion
13
The
art
of
being
compassionate
towards
oneself
could
be
a
fundamental
part
of
becoming
authentic.
The
following
paragraph
will
outline
why
and
how
the
two
constructs
could
be
connected.
1.2.1.
Self-
Compassion
as
a
construct
The
concept
of
Self-
Compassion
stems
from
Buddhist
philosophy
and
is
relatively
new
in
the
Western
psychology.
It
describes
an
alternative
and
less
egocentric
approach
for
developing
a
healthy
relationship
towards
oneself.
It
is
likely
to
be
related
to
self-
empathy,
humanistic
psychology
and
emotional
development.
Due
to
Neff
(2003a),
the
construct
is
understood
and
defined
using
three
sub-
variables:
1. Self-
Kindness:
extending
kindness
and
understanding
to
oneself
rather
than
harsh
self-
criticism
and
judgment
2. Common
Humanity:
seeing
one's
experiences
as
part
of
the
larger
human
experience
rather
than
as
separating
and
isolating
3. Mindfulness:
holding
one's
painful
thoughts
and
feelings
in
balanced
awareness
rather
than
over-
identifying
with
them.
Self-
compassion
includes
the
assumption
that
one's
suffering,
failure
and
inadequacies
are
part
of
the
human
condition
and
that
all
people,
including
oneself,
are
worthy
of
compassion:
`Self-
compassion,
therefore,
involves
being
touched
by
and
open
to
one's
own
suffering,
not
avoiding
or
disconnecting
from
it,
generating
the
desire
to
alleviate
one's
suffering
and
to
heal
oneself
with
kindness.
Self-
compassion
also
involves
offering
non-
judgmental
understanding
to
one's
pain,
inadequacies
and
failures,
so
that
one's
experience
is
seen
as
part
of
the
larger
human
experience'
(Neff,
2003a,
p.
87).
1.
Review
of
literature
1.2.
Authentic
Leadership
and
Self-
Compassion
14
Self-
Compassion
can
be
a
powerful
force
for
individual
growth
and
change,
as
it
creates
the
emotional
safety
needed
to
see
oneself
clearly
without
the
fear
of
harmful
self-
judgment.
It
protects
against
self-
evaluative
anxiety
when
faced
with
personal
weaknesses
(Neff
et
al.,
2007a).
Further
studies
found
that
Self-
Compassion
moderates
individual's
reactions
to
unpleasant
life
events,
such
as
failure,
rejection
or
embarrassment:
people
with
high
levels
of
Self-
Compassion
showed
lower
negative
emotions,
accepted
responsibility
for
their
role
in
negative
events
and
were
generally
more
willing
to
accept
undesirable
aspects
of
their
character.
Additionally,
it
has
been
hypothesized
that
Self-
Compassion
functions
as
a
buffer
for
negative
life
events,
as
individuals
are
able
to
make
more
accurate
self-
evaluations
without
self-
criticism
or
defensive
self-
enhancement
(Leary
et
al.,
2007).
Positive
correlations
have
been
found
between
Self-
Compassion
and
positive
psychological
functioning
(such
as
happiness,
optimism,
wisdom
or
curiosity)
as
well
as
the
big-
five
personality
traits
agreeableness,
extroversion
and
conscientiousness
(Neff
et
al.,
2007b).
Due
to
its
non-
judgmental
nature,
Self-
Compassion
is
meant
to
protect
against
narcissism,
self-
centeredness,
social
comparison
as
well
as
self-
criticism,
feelings
of
isolation,
depression
and
anxiety.
It
is
likely
to
foster
proactive
behaviors
restoring
and
maintaining
mental
well-
being,
psychological
health
and
life
satisfaction
(Neff,
2003a).
1.2.2.
Self-
Compassion
and
other
self-
related
constructs
in
Authentic
Leadership
The
non-
judgmental
nature
of
Self-
Compassion
is
a
unique
trait
that
could
be
central
for
the
development
of
self-
expressed
and
authentic
being
in
one's
leadership
role.
Taking
a
close
look
at
the
concept
of
Self-
Compassion
with
its
three
variables
Self-
Kindness,
Common
Humanity
and
Mindfulness,
remarkable
similarities
to
other
self-
related
concepts
in
the
context
of
Authentic
Leadership
become
evident.
A
simple
theoretical
model
showing
Self-
Compassion
as
a
root
construct
for
Authentic
Leadership
is
being
developed
in
the
following.
1.
Review
of
literature
1.2.
Authentic
Leadership
and
Self-
Compassion
15
1.2.2.1.
Self-
Compassion
and
embracing
vulnerability:
accepting
weakness
First
of
all,
Self-
Compassion
connects
closely
to
the
work
about
vulnerability
and
authenticity
by
social
work
professor
Dr.
Brene
Brown
(PhD).
Brown
(2010)
defines
authenticity
as
`...the
daily
practice
of
letting
go
of
who
we
think
we're
supposed
to
be
and
embracing
who
we
are'
(Brown,
2010,
p.50).
It
seems
that
in
order
to
do
so,
one
would
need
a
high
level
of
`Self-
Kindness':
to
extend
kindness
and
understanding
to
oneself
rather
than
self-
criticism
and
judgment
(Neff,
2003a).
Brown
(2010)
further
on
writes
that
authentic
living
and
leading
would
include
to
cultivate
the
courage
to
be
imperfect
and
to
fully
accept
one's
vulnerabilities
as
part
of
being
human
which
seems
to
be
an
equivalent
of
the
variable
`Common
Humanity':
seeing
one's
experience
as
part
of
the
larger
human
experience
rather
than
isolating
(Neff,
2003a).
Diddams
&
Chang
(2012)
support
this
connection
in
stating
that
the
full
acceptance
of
weakness
lays
at
the
core
of
authenticity.
Referring
to
the
four
characteristics
of
Authentic
Leadership
(Walumbwa
et
al.,
2008),
namely
Self-
Awareness,
Transparency,
Ethical/Moral
and
Balanced
Processing,
they
state
how
important
it
is
for
Authentic
Leadership
development
to
accept
weaknesses
in
all
four
areas:
The
acknowledgement
of
never
being
able
to
know
everything
about
oneself
(Self-
Awareness),
the
acceptance
of
occasional
non-
congruence
between
attitudes
and
behaviours
(Balanced
Processing),
modesty
about
own
moral
judgments
(Moral/Ethical)
and
generous
openness
not
only
about
failures,
but
also
flaws
and
fears
(Transparency)
would
lead
to
greater
authenticity
than
otherwise.
This
shows
similarities
to
the
variable
`Self-
Kindness'
(being
kind
towards
every
aspect
of
one's
being,
including
unflattering
ones)
and
interprets
the
variable
`Common
Humanity'
accurately:
`We
advocate
for
a
conception
of
self-
esteem
that
is
not
only
strong
enough
to
avoid
this
defensiveness
when
confronted
with
negative
feedback
but
includes
the
continual
presence
of
weakness
as
part
of
its
self-
schemata.
[...]
We
suggest
1.
Review
of
literature
1.2.
Authentic
Leadership
and
Self-
Compassion
16
that
leaders'
acceptance
of
their
weaknesses
as
authentic
is
not
only
developmentally
appropriate
but
in
being
only
human,
frees
them
to
unselve
and
create
greater
good
among
their
followers.'
(Diddams
&
Chang,
2012,
p.
600)
Considering
that
both
`Self-
Kindness'
and
`Common
Humanity'
may
lie
at
the
core
of
accepting
one's
vulnerabilities,
it
is
interesting
to
see
what
Brown
(2012)
concludes
about
vulnerability
in
the
context
of
Authentic
Leadership:
`To
reignite
creativity,
innovation,
and
learning,
leaders
must
re-
humanize
education
and
work.
This
means
understanding
how
scarcity
is
affecting
the
way
we
lead
and
work,
[and]
learning
how
to
engage
with
vulnerability
[...]
(Brown,
2012,
p.
184).
It
brings
the
perspective
to
our
work
life
that
leaders
must
recognize
human
beings
as
the
essence
of
organizations,
including
themselves.
Dealing
with
human
beings
is
a
vulnerable
process
which,
when
being
acknowledged
as
such,
will
lead
to
constant
engagement
and
growth:
`If
you
want
a
culture
of
creativity
and
innovation
where
sensible
risks
are
embraced
on
both
a
market
and
individual
level,
start
by
developing
the
ability
of
managers
to
cultivate
an
openness
to
vulnerability
in
their
teams.
And
this,
paradoxically
perhaps,
requires
first
that
they
are
vulnerable
themselves.
This
notion
that
the
leader
needs
to
be
`in
charge'
and
to
`know
all
the
answers'
is
both
dated
and
destructive.'
Peter
Sheahan,
CEO
of
ChangeLabs
TM,
cited
in
Brown
(2012),
p.65.
Based
on
this
connection,
practicing
Self-
Compassion
could
support
leaders
in
embracing
their
vulnerabilities
and
becoming
more
authentic.
It
could
make
an
important
contribution
to
re-
humanize
work,
to
reignite
creativity
and
to
re-
create
meaning
for
their
organizations.
1.
Review
of
literature
1.2.
Authentic
Leadership
and
Self-
Compassion
17
1.2.2.2.
Self-
Compassion
and
self-
esteem:
intrinsic
sense
of
worthiness
The
conceptualization
of
self-
esteem
by
Kernis
(2003)
has
heavily
influenced
the
genesis
of
Authentic
Leadership,
and
interestingly
enough
similarities
between
an
optimal
sense
of
self-
esteem
and
Self-
Compassion
can
be
found.
Especially
the
variables
`Self-
Kindness'
and
`Mindfulness'
seem
to
relate
to
what
Kernis
(2003)
defines
an
optimal
sense
of
self-
esteem:
it
includes
well-
anchored
and
secure
feelings
of
self-
worth
shown
by
`...people
who
like,
value,
and
accept
themselves,
imperfections
and
all'
(p.3).
This
unconditional
acceptance
of
oneself
goes
along
with
the
description
of
`Self-
Kindness'
and
might
be
a
consequence
of
showing
kind
understanding
towards
oneself.
Kernis
(2003)
further
on
mentions
that
people
with
secure
high
self-
esteem
do
not
compare
their
worthiness
to
others,
and
their
feelings
of
self-
worth
are
not
easily
challenged:
negative
feedback
or
poor
performance
might
lead
to
the
conclusion
of
not
being
good
at
a
particular
task,
but
it
does
not
affect
their
overall
sense
of
worthiness
(also
see
Diddams
&
Chang,
2012).
It
could
be
that
this
capacity
is
a
result
of
showing
`Mindfulness':
holding
one's
painful
thoughts
and
feelings
in
balanced
awareness
rather
than
over-
identifying
with
them
(Neff,
2003a).
If
an
individual
does
not
over
identify
with
unpleasant
self-
related
information,
it
might
be
that
unflattering
facts
can
be
accepted
peacefully
and
without
self-
destructing
consequences.
Concerning
the
benefits
of
optimal
self-
esteem,
Kernis
(2003)
concludes
that
a
strong
sense
of
intrinsic
worthiness
and
the
acknowledgement
of
weakness
is
likely
to
increase
a
leader's
authenticity:
`Authenticity
can
be
characterized
as
reflecting
the
unobstructed
operation
of
one's
true,
or
core,
self
in
one's
daily
enterprise'
(Kernis,
2003,
p.13).
Showing
Self-
Compassion
towards
oneself
could
be
equivalent
to
the
development
of
an
optimal
sense
of
self-
esteem.
Studies
showed
that
Self-
Compassion
was
moderately
correlated
with
self-
esteem
(Neff,
2003b),
and
yet
the
correlation
was
low
enough
to
assume
that
both
constructs
can
be
discriminated
from
each
other.
For
example,
Self-
Compassion
did
not
have
significant
correlations
with
narcissism,
whereas
self-
esteem
did.
Other
research
1.
Review
of
literature
1.2.
Authentic
Leadership
and
Self-
Compassion
18
comparing
high
self-
esteem
with
Self-
Compassion
found
that
Self-
Compassion
is
more
predictive
of
caring
and
supportive
relationship
behavior
than
self-
esteem
(Neff
&
Beretvas,
2013),
and
some
even
consider
Self-
Compassion
as
a
possible
alternative
to
self-
esteem
for
developing
a
healthy
sense
of
worthiness
(Neff
&
Vonk,
2009).
Contradictory
to
Kernis'
(2003)
definition
of
optimal
self-
esteem,
the
original
construct
of
self-
esteem
is
often
associated
with
a
high
level
of
positive
self-
evaluations
about
oneself,
which
includes
external
comparison
to
others.
High
self-
esteem
therefore
might
have
more
downsides
to
psychological
health
than
the
non-
evaluative
nature
of
Self-
Compassion
(Neff,
2011).
1.2.3.
Hypothetical
impact
of
Self-
Compassion
on
Authentic
Leadership
To
summarize,
a
review
of
the
literature
showed
that
Self-
Compassion
with
its
three
sub-
variables
contains
interesting
similarities
to
the
theory
of
vulnerability
and
optimal
self-
esteem
in
the
context
of
authenticity.
As
outlined,
Self-
Compassion
could
support
a
leader
in
kindly
embracing
his
vulnerabilities,
developing
a
healthy
sense
of
authenticity.
Furthermore,
Self-
Compassion
could
be
equivalent
or
contributing
to
the
development
of
optimal,
intrinsic
self-
esteem.
Both
an
optimal
sense
of
self-
esteem
as
well
as
the
acceptance
of
personal
vulnerabilities
is
described
as
crucial
for
the
development
of
authenticity
(Kernis,
2003;
Brown,
2010;
Diddams
&
Chang,
2012),
which
consequently
determines
how
authentic
an
individual
behaves
in
a
leadership
role.
Given
that
our
analysis
has
some
truth
in
it,
Self-
Compassion
should
support
the
development
of
the
four
qualities
of
Authentic
Leaders
described
by
Walumbwa
et
al.
(2008).
The
following
model
gives
an
overview
about
the
made
connections.
1.
Review
of
literature
1.2.
Authentic
Leadership
and
Self-
Compassion
19
While
several
authors
consider
Authentic
Leadership
as
the
root
construct
for
other
positive
forms
of
leadership
(Avolio
&
Gardner,
2005;
Shamir
&
Eilam,
2005),
we
might
assume
based
on
our
investigations
that
Self-
Compassion
could
be
a
root
construct
for
authenticity
and
Authentic
Leadership.
The
developed
model
in
analogy
to
the
`iceberg
model'
(first
introduced
by
Hall,
1967)
shows
that
the
core
of
Authentic
Leadership
could
lie
in
the
practice
of
Self-
Compassion.
Whereas
the
behaviours
of
an
authentic
leader
are
visible
at
the
top
of
the
iceberg,
the
larger
portion
of
Authentic
Leadership
lies
beneath
the
surface.
The
Authentic
Leadership
Self-
Compassion
Mindfulness
Self-
Kindness
Common
Humanity
Authenticity
·
Being
one's
true,
imperfect
self
·
Intrinsic
sense
of
worthiness
&
life
purpose
·
Acceptance
of
negative
self-
relevant
information
Acceptance
of
weakness
&
vulnerabilities
Optimal
self-
esteem
Self-
awareness
Transparency
Balanced
Processing
Ethical/Moral
Fig.1:
Model
about
the
relationship
between
Self-
Compassion,
authenticity
and
Authentic
Leadership.
Own
illustration
based
on
Neff
(2003a),
Kernis
(2003),
Walumbwa
et
al.
(2008),
Brown
(2010)
and
Diddams
&
Chang
(2012).
1.
Review
of
literature
1.2.
Authentic
Leadership
and
Self-
Compassion
20
development
of
authenticity,
including
the
psychological
capacity
to
practice
Self-
Compassion,
is
an
underlying
and
intensely
personal
process
not
observable
at
first
sight.
Although
our
model
cannot
provide
sound
hypothesis
about
direct
relationships
between
the
three
variables
of
Self-
Compassion
and
the
four
distinct
characteristics
of
authentic
leaders,
we
could
formulate
expectations
about
possible
correlations:
`Self-
Kindness'
might
contribute
to
`Self-
Awareness',
as
embracing
instead
of
criticizing
one's
flaw's
is
necessary
to
become
aware
of
weaknesses,
dealing
with
them
openly.
A
sense
of
`Common
Humanity'
could
be
needed
to
develop
strong
`Ethical/Moral'
values
and
to
recognize
one's
ethical
responsibility
for
the
whole
organization.
Lastly,
`Mindfulness'
with
one's
thoughts
and
feelings
could
be
both
valuable
to
develop
a
healthy
sense
of
`Self-
Awareness'
as
well
as
`Balanced
Processing':
who
does
not
run
away
or
over-
identify
with
painful
thoughts
and
feelings
might
be
more
eager
to
see
one's
inadequacies
clearly
and
to
carefully
as
well
as
transparently
evaluate
different
alternatives
for
a
decision.
In
case
Self-
Compassion
would
be
a
core
construct
for
Authentic
Leadership,
new
horizons
and
opportunities
for
Authentic
Leadership
Development
would
arise.
The
following
study
was
conducted
with
the
aim
to
find
first
empirical
evidence
for
this
relationship,
guided
by
the
research
question:
Does
Self-
Compassion
increase
the
authenticity
of
a
leader?
Details
- Seiten
- Erscheinungsform
- Originalausgabe
- Erscheinungsjahr
- 2013
- ISBN (Paperback)
- 9783842872851
- ISBN (PDF)
- 9783961161966
- Dateigröße
- 3 MB
- Sprache
- Englisch
- Institution / Hochschule
- University of Westminster – Department for Business Psychology
- Erscheinungsdatum
- 2017 (November)
- Note
- 1,0
- Schlagworte
- does self-compassion authenticity authentic leadership development
- Produktsicherheit
- Diplom.de
