Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
©2006
Diplomarbeit
192 Seiten
Zusammenfassung
Inhaltsangabe:Abstract:
In these times of rapid increase of internet usage, the question arises for multinational companies (MNCs) whether to standardise or adapt their internet presence to different cultural groupings or even subcultures.
The overall target of this research is therefore to assist MNCs by producing recommendations concerning the promotion of products and services for a particular transnational consumer group. Therefore, country-specific websites of companies rooted in different cultural origins are selected for this research, namely EgyptAir, Mercedes-Benz and SonyEricsson.
This analysis follows the inductive research approach embedding elements of an ethnographic and exploratory research method. The main part of the empirical study is conducted by means of an online-behaviourist questionnaire following the quantitative research approach and complementary a culture-related questionnaire following the qualitative research approach.
The sample size is composed of Egyptian students from the Misr International University in Cairo and German students from Heilbronn University forming the selected samples. Even though Egypt is a developing country and Germany an industrialised one, the samples are comparable due to the similar social and educational backgrounds.
The research results are applied to the lifestyle typology segmentation method, namely the Euro-Social-Styles of the GfK thus creating a new model of six lifestyle typologies in which the two samples are categorised.
It is revealed by the main findings that the respective companies deal despite the different nationalities of the samples, with a transnational consumer group which is characterised by a relative homogeneity. Nevertheless, not all values and traits are similar within this consumer group and it therefore requires a certain degree of adaptation of marketing activities.
It was possible to identify within the scope of this research that, in general, companies enjoying a high brand awareness and reputation are not exposed to the urge of adaptation, especially when selling culture-free products and services.
Finally, one should continuously bear in mind that generalisations must not be made at any stage. Moreover, due to the small sample size, this research only represents a starting point for further research.
Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents:
1.INTRODUCTION3
1.1Background of the Thesis3
1.2Objectives and Roadmap of the Thesis4
2.METHODOLOGY7
2.1The […]
In these times of rapid increase of internet usage, the question arises for multinational companies (MNCs) whether to standardise or adapt their internet presence to different cultural groupings or even subcultures.
The overall target of this research is therefore to assist MNCs by producing recommendations concerning the promotion of products and services for a particular transnational consumer group. Therefore, country-specific websites of companies rooted in different cultural origins are selected for this research, namely EgyptAir, Mercedes-Benz and SonyEricsson.
This analysis follows the inductive research approach embedding elements of an ethnographic and exploratory research method. The main part of the empirical study is conducted by means of an online-behaviourist questionnaire following the quantitative research approach and complementary a culture-related questionnaire following the qualitative research approach.
The sample size is composed of Egyptian students from the Misr International University in Cairo and German students from Heilbronn University forming the selected samples. Even though Egypt is a developing country and Germany an industrialised one, the samples are comparable due to the similar social and educational backgrounds.
The research results are applied to the lifestyle typology segmentation method, namely the Euro-Social-Styles of the GfK thus creating a new model of six lifestyle typologies in which the two samples are categorised.
It is revealed by the main findings that the respective companies deal despite the different nationalities of the samples, with a transnational consumer group which is characterised by a relative homogeneity. Nevertheless, not all values and traits are similar within this consumer group and it therefore requires a certain degree of adaptation of marketing activities.
It was possible to identify within the scope of this research that, in general, companies enjoying a high brand awareness and reputation are not exposed to the urge of adaptation, especially when selling culture-free products and services.
Finally, one should continuously bear in mind that generalisations must not be made at any stage. Moreover, due to the small sample size, this research only represents a starting point for further research.
Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents:
1.INTRODUCTION3
1.1Background of the Thesis3
1.2Objectives and Roadmap of the Thesis4
2.METHODOLOGY7
2.1The […]
Leseprobe
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Britt Söder, Verena Wiedmaier
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
ISBN: 978-3-8366-0141-2
Druck Diplomica® GmbH, Hamburg, 2007
Zugl. Fachhochschule Heilbronn, Heilbronn, Deutschland, Diplomarbeit, 2006
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Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
i
P
RELIMINARY
N
OTE
This thesis includes all relevant information. However, for any further references,
please refer to the appendences, the quoted sources as well as the researchers. It should
be noted that all sources were selected properly and were double-checked for reasons of
reliability. All references are published by official institutions, governments, as well as
in accessible literature and publications. Additionally, it was referred to the knowledge
of the tutoring professors, Prof. Dr. Margarete Seidenspinner and Prof. Dr. Gabriele
Theuner.
A separate CD is provided including the completed questionnaires of the Egyptian and
German sample. For a uniform layout and easier reading, the Egyptian questionnaires
were retyped. It should be emphasised that the content was not changed whereas
spelling mistakes were partly corrected.
The graphical illustrations of the online-behaviourist research results were kindly
provided by Prof. Dr. Gabriele Theuner who evaluated these questionnaires by means of
SPSS.
Finally, it has to be stated that the recommendations are only applicable to the
respective target groups and can therefore not be generalised thus cannot be used for
other cultural groupings.
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
ii
A
CKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all we would like to thank our tutoring professors, Prof. Dr. Margarete
Seidenspinner and Prof. Dr. Gabriele Theuner. This thesis would not have been possible
without their help, advice and continuous support.
Furthermore, we acknowledge the effort of Melitta Klein, Sebastian Helm, Christina
Kühnl and John M. Price who reviewed this thesis. In this context we also appreciate
the contributions made by other friends.
Great thanks are dedicated to our parents and families for their permanent support
during our studies and their belief in us as well as in our objectives.
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
iii
S
YNOPSIS
In these times of rapid increase of internet usage, the question arises for
multinational companies (MNCs) whether to standardise or adapt their internet presence
to different cultural groupings or even subcultures.
The overall target of this research is therefore to assist MNCs by producing
recommendations concerning the promotion of products and services for a particular
transnational consumer group. Therefore, country-specific websites of companies
rooted in different cultural origins are selected for this research, namely EgyptAir,
Mercedes-Benz and SonyEricsson.
This analysis follows the inductive research approach embedding elements of an
ethnographic and exploratory research method. The main part of the empirical study is
conducted by means of an online-behaviourist questionnaire following the quantitative
research approach and complementary a culture-related questionnaire following the
qualitative research approach.
The sample size is composed of Egyptian students from the Misr International
University in Cairo (online-behaviourist questionnaire: N=18; culture-related
questionnaire: N=18) and German students from Heilbronn University (N=34; N=22)
forming the selected samples. Even though Egypt is a developing country and Germany
an industrialised one, the samples are comparable due to the similar social and
educational backgrounds.
The research results are applied to the lifestyle typology segmentation method, namely
the Euro-Social-Styles of the GfK thus creating a new model of six lifestyle typologies
in which the two samples are categorised.
It is revealed by the main findings that the respective companies deal despite the
different nationalities of the samples, with a transnational consumer group which is
characterised by a relative homogeneity. Nevertheless, not all values and traits are
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
iv
similar within this consumer group and it therefore requires a certain degree of
adaptation of marketing activities.
It was possible to identify within the scope of this research that, in general, companies
enjoying a high brand awareness and reputation are not exposed to the urge of
adaptation, especially when selling culture-free products and services.
Finally, one should continuously bear in mind that generalisations must not be made at
any stage. Moreover, due to the small sample size, this research only represents a
starting point for further research.
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
v
A
BBREVIATIONS
AIO
Activities,
interests,
opinion
(Burnett)
A4 (DIN A4)
Format for paper, 210mm x 297mm
BMW
Bayerische
Motorenwerke
AG
B2B
Business
to
business
B2C
Business
to
customer
CAA
Centre
de
Communication
Avancé,
France
Deutsche
BA
Deutsche
British
Airways
E-book
Electronic
book
et
seq.
Latin
"et sequentia"
meaning "and the following one or ones"
EU
European
Union
FDI
Foreign
direct
investment
GB
Great
Britain
GDP
PPP
Gross
domestic
product purchasing power parity
GfK
Gesellschaft für Konsum-, Markt- und
Absatzforschung e.V.
HLX
Hapag Lloyd Express
HTML
HyperText Markup Language
IBIS
Internationale Betriebswirtschaft Interkulturelle
Studien
International Business Intercultural Studies
M
Million
MIU
Misr
International
University,
Cairo
MNC
Multinational
company
NAFTA
North American Free Trade Agreement
PC
Personal
computer
RISC
RISC
Institute
S.A.,
Nyon,
Switzerland
SIM
Subscriber
Identity
Module
SPSS
Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences
TB
Tourismusbetriebswirtschaft
Tourism
Management
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
vi
WWW
World
Wide
Web
W2
Wirtschaft Zwei
Faculty of business at Heilbronn University
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
vii
F
IGURES
Figure 1: Roadmap of the thesis ___________________________________________ 4
Figure 2: Induction versus deduction________________________________________ 6
Figure 3: Map of Egypt _________________________________________________ 10
Figure 4: Framework of international marketing______________________________ 18
Figure 5: Explicative-descriptive model of culture ____________________________ 19
Figure 6: Illustration of the Euro-Socio-Styles 2002___________________________ 26
Figure 7: The questionnaire format ________________________________________ 40
Figure 8: Online-behaviourist questionnaire used for the Egyptian sample _________ 50
Figure 9: Online-behaviourist questionnaire used for the German sample __________ 56
Figure 10: Culture-related questionnaire used for the Egyptian sample ____________ 60
Figure 11: Culture-related questionnaire used for the German sample _____________ 64
Figure 12: Example for a possible arrangement of a website ____________________ 67
Figure 13: Egyptian EgyptAir website _____________________________________ 71
Figure 14: Mercedes-Benz Egypt homepage_________________________________ 72
Figure 15: SonyEricsson Middle East homepage _____________________________ 73
Figure 16: German EgyptAir website ______________________________________ 75
Figure 17: Mercedes-Benz Germany homepage ______________________________ 76
Figure 18: SonyEricsson Germany website__________________________________ 77
Figure 19: Gender distribution of both samples ______________________________ 82
Figure 20: Preferences of tools of both samples ______________________________ 83
Figure 21: Brand familiarity by country ____________________________________ 87
Figure 22: Visit to EgyptAir website by sample ______________________________ 89
Figure 23: Visit to Mercedes-Benz website of both samples ____________________ 90
Figure 24: Visit to SonyEricsson website by sample __________________________ 91
Figure 25: Students appealed by websites ___________________________________ 92
Figure 26: Great interest in websites _______________________________________ 92
Figure 27: Special features on EgyptAir website _____________________________ 97
Figure 28: Position of EgyptAir brand _____________________________________ 98
Figure 29: Special features on Mercedes-Benz website _______________________ 101
Figure 30: Logo position of Mercedes-Benz brand ___________________________ 102
Figure 31: Special features on SonyEricsson website _________________________ 105
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
viii
Figure 32: Position of SonyEricsson brand logo _____________________________ 105
Figure 33: Perception of colour design of all websites ________________________ 109
Figure 34: Hobbies of both samples ______________________________________ 113
Figure 35: Favourite colours by both samples_______________________________ 115
Figure 36: Profession of parents by sample_________________________________ 117
Figure 37: Type of accommodation of both samples _________________________ 118
Figure 38: Brand of mobile phones of both samples __________________________ 120
Figure 39: Reasons for choice of mobile phone brand of both samples ___________ 120
Figure 40: Official Middle Eastern webpage of Nokia ________________________ 122
Figure 41: Preferred airlines by both samples _______________________________ 123
Figure 42: Reasons for choice of airline of both samples ______________________ 123
Figure 43: Possession of car of both samples _______________________________ 125
Figure 44: Brand of car of both samples ___________________________________ 126
Figure 45: Favourite car brands of both samples_____________________________ 126
Figure 46: Reasons for choice of own car and favourite car brand of both samples__ 127
Figure 47: Opinion of Germany before arrival and its confirmation______________ 129
Figure 48: Self-perception of Germany ____________________________________ 130
Figure 49: Outside perception of Germany _________________________________ 131
Figure 50: Meaning of home country to both samples ________________________ 132
Figure 51: Most important immaterial values of both samples __________________ 134
Figure 52: Most important material values of both samples ____________________ 136
Figure 53: Definition of genuine Egyptian/German __________________________ 139
Figure 54: Role of country's history for both samples ________________________ 140
Figure 55: Future role in society of both samples ____________________________ 141
Figure 56: Self-assessment of both samples ________________________________ 142
Figure 57: The four major tendencies of lifestyles ___________________________ 146
Figure 58: Categorisation of both samples' values into lifestyle tendencies________ 148
Figure 59: Derivation of six groupings ____________________________________ 149
Figure 60: The six adapted lifestyle typologies ______________________________ 150
Figure 61: Summary of most important findings_____________________________ 157
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
ix
T
ABLES
Table 1: Importance of values to be taught to children _________________________ 15
Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of the e-mail administered survey _________ 32
Table 3: Advantages and disadvantages of the hybrid interrogation method ________ 35
Table 4: Advantages and disadvantages of the quantitative approach _____________ 38
Table 5: Advantages and disadvantages of the qualitative research approach _______ 39
Table 6: Similarities and differences of the selected websites ___________________ 79
Table 7: Illustration of rates of return of both samples _________________________ 80
Table 8: Ranking by tools _______________________________________________ 85
Table 9: Ranking by most important features ________________________________ 87
Table 10: Websites ranked by characteristics ________________________________ 95
Table 11: Ranking of perceptive features by website _________________________ 108
Table 12: Investigation of websites according to findings (Egyptian sample) ______ 161
Table 13: Investigation of websites according to findings (German sample) _______ 162
Table 14: Listing of the values of the transnational consumer group _____________ 166
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
x
T
ABLE OF
C
ONTENT
1
INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1
Background of the Thesis... 1
1.2
Objectives and Roadmap of the Thesis... 2
2
METHODOLOGY ... 5
2.1
The Inductive Approach ... 5
2.2
Ethnographic Approach... 7
2.3
Research Approach: Exploratory Approach ... 8
3
REVIEW OF LITERATURE... 9
3.1
Culture: Egypt as an Exemplification... 9
3.1.1
Definition of the Term Culture ... 9
3.1.2
Selective Aspects of the Egyptian Culture... 10
3.1.2.1
The Egyptian Identity... 10
3.1.2.2
Patterns of Change ... 11
3.1.2.3
Beliefs and Values... 13
3.2
Determinants of International Marketing... 17
3.2.1
Socio-cultural Factors... 19
3.2.2
Globalisation Approach the Convergence Thesis... 21
3.2.3
Adaptation Need the Divergence Approach ... 22
3.2.3.1
Intercultural Approach in International Marketing ... 22
3.2.3.2
The Transnational approach in International Marketing ... 23
3.2.4
Approach of the Typology of Lifestyles... 24
4
EMPIRICAL STUDY... 28
4.1
Research Method... 28
4.2
Procedure of Interrogation ... 29
4.2.1
German Students: E-mail Administered Method... 29
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
xi
4.2.1.1
Selection of Target Group ... 32
4.2.1.2
Sampling ... 33
4.2.2
Egyptian Students: Hybrid Interrogation Method... 34
4.2.2.1
Selection of the Target Group ... 35
4.2.2.2
Sampling ... 36
4.3
Preparation of Questionnaires ... 36
4.3.1
Axiom ... 36
4.3.2
Quantitative and Qualitative Research Approach... 36
4.3.3
Choice of Questionnaire Format... 40
4.3.3.1
Online-behaviourist Questionnaire: Quantitative Research Approach... 42
4.3.3.2
Culture-related Questionnaire: Qualitative Research Approach ... 57
4.4
Websites as Part of Online Communication... 65
4.4.1
Fundamentals of a Company Website ... 66
4.4.1.1
Structure ... 66
4.4.1.2
Content ... 67
4.4.1.3
Design ... 68
4.4.2
The Websites of this Survey ... 69
4.4.2.1
The Websites for the Egyptian Survey... 70
4.4.2.2
The Websites for the German Survey ... 74
5
EVALUATION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS ... 80
5.1
Rate of Return ... 80
5.2
Evaluation of the Online-behaviourist Questionnaire... 81
5.3
Evaluation of the Culture-related Questionnaire ... 111
5.4
Adaptation of Lifestyle Typology to the Research Results ... 145
5.4.1
The Four Major Tendencies... 145
5.4.1.1
Sense of Departure ... 147
5.4.1.2
Self-fulfilment and Independence ... 147
5.4.1.3
Sense of Stability... 147
5.4.1.4
Security ... 148
5.4.2
Categorisation of Values... 148
5.4.3
Development of Six Dominating Lifestyle Types ... 149
5.4.3.1
Idealistic Reformer... 150
5.4.3.2
Young Dynamic ... 151
5.4.3.3
Successful Performer... 151
5.4.3.4
Rooted Traditionalist... 152
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
xii
5.4.3.5
Stable Harmonist... 153
5.4.3.6
Conscious Society Member... 153
5.4.4
Categorisation of the Egyptian and German Sample ... 154
5.4.4.1
The Egyptian Sample ... 154
5.4.4.2
The German Sample... 155
6
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ... 156
6.1
Findings ... 158
6.2
Egyptian and German Samples: Transnational Target Groups ... 159
6.3
Adaptation to investigated Company Websites ... 160
6.3.1
Egyptian Sample... 161
6.3.2
German Sample ... 162
6.4
Recommendations... 164
6.4.1
Recommendations for Marketing Activities ... 164
6.4.2
Value System of the Transnational Consumer Group... 165
7
APPENDENCES...I
8
LITERATURE ... III
EIDESSTATTLICHE ERKLÄRUNG ... X
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
1
1
I
NTRODUCTION
1.1
B
ACKGROUND OF THE
T
HESIS
The information and communication technology sector is a fast growing driver in the
world economy and therefore affects most countries led by the industrialised ones.
Nevertheless, emerging markets and developing countries are catching up which also
includes Egypt in terms of the PC segment in general and internet usage in particular.
As far as the latter is concerned, the Egyptian government has supported this specific
industry from the earliest days resulting in the establishment of an internet network at a
comparable early stage in governmental institutions, NGO's and private companies and
later for individual users as well.
In 2005, the amount of the internet hosts in Egypt reached 1,702 (rank 124 in
worldwide comparison) whereas approximately 5M Egyptians (total population in 2006:
78.9M) use the internet which ranks the country at 35 worldwide. In comparison to
these figures, Germany has 7,657,162 internet hosts (rank 4 worldwide) as well as
48,722,055 internet users (total population in 2006: 82.4M) which results in rank 7
worldwide (www.cia.gov).
Nevertheless, a huge imbalance between urban and rural areas in Egypt in regard to
internet users and hosts can be noticed. Its capital Cairo is by far the city with the most
internet service providers in comparison to other Egyptian cities and regions.
Consequently, this relatively high competitiveness has entailed a slump in price thus
resulting in affordability of internet for the majority of the urban citizens which makes
internet nowadays an important and powerful tool for marketing activities in Egypt.
Global players have already realised their opportunities to add value to their company
by setting up a high quality internet performance and a properly designed website. This
raises the question whether these companies could use their basic home country
website for all cultures or if any adaptation should be conducted. If so, it has to be
determined on the one hand to what degree an adaptation still aligns with the corporate
identity or on the other hand if the companies should rather respect the culture of the
respective market they are operating in.
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
2
This approach allegorises the basis for the previous research conducted by Prof. Dr.
Gabriele Theuner who specialises in the field of eye-tracking. Regarding earlier
researches, Latin and North America as well as China were covered by Prof. Dr.
Theuner leaving space for further studies within other cultural areas. The regional focus
for this thesis was initiated by Prof. Dr. Margarete Seidenspinner who has established
intensive links with the Misr International University in Cairo (MIU). In this context,
Egypt seemed to be a predestined country for analysis because of the existing
relationship between the MIU and the University of Heilbronn and the fact that a
number of Egyptian students participated in the Summer School project providing the
opportunity for interrogation. Moreover, the researchers' study course has a strong
emphasis on the Egyptian language, modern culture and economic development which
made the topic of this thesis a well-fitting addendum to their studies.
Moreover, the specific scope of this paper was developed in order to combine the
previous findings of Prof. Dr. Theuner and the results of this research for the "Business
Management Conference 2006" in Latvia in which both professors participated
actively.
1.2
O
BJECTIVES AND
R
OADMAP OF THE
T
HESIS
The main objective of this paper is to formulate the needs for standardisation or/and
adaptation of a company's website design to an Egyptian and German subcultural
group. The investigated company homepages were Mercedes-Benz, EgyptAir, and
SonyEricsson from the respective countries. In this context it should be stated that the
transferability is limited to the subjects of investigation which are in this thesis the
Egyptian and German samples. Theoretical as well as empirical aspects were embedded
by means of a sound literature review and a survey.
The theoretical foundations consist of a brief and general description of the Egyptian
culture as well as the socio-cultural factors of international marketing focusing on the
development of lifestyle typologies. These fundamentals provide only a general
application of regional areas such as e.g. the Middle East, Europe, or America.
However, this research approaches the Egyptian and German culture, represented by
the upper middle class as a subculture.
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
3
It was avoided analysing explicitly the German culture as it is only used for comparison
purposes. Nevertheless, it is covered sample-specifically through the questionnaires
completed by the German sample.
The aim of the empirical study is to compare country-specific consumer
preferences of both subcultures to each other and to explain these possible differences
and similarities.
The results of the analysis are summarised in the adapted lifestyle typologies including
the categorisation of both subcultures. Afterwards, recommendations based on the
research findings are given with regard to the adaptation or standardisation need of the
three company websites to the respective cultural groupings.
As depicted in figure one, the thesis in divided into two main parts. Part A consists of
the methodology and the review of literature. The first section provides the reader with
the applied research approaches. Within the literature review the term culture is defined
by Merriam-Webster and Rohner in chapter three and it also provides a specific
overview of the Egyptian culture which is essential for a proper understanding of the
context. Moreover, this chapter deals with the determinants of international marketing
and elaborates the relevance of culture within this regard. It is focused on the
convergence theory on the one hand and on the divergence approach on the other hand.
Within the divergence theory, one can distinguish between the intercultural and
transnational approach whereas the latter covers the segmentation method by means of
lifestyle typologies with the Euro-Socio-Styles as exemplification. Whereas this part of
the literature review only generalises the Egyptian culture, the empirical analysis of this
thesis focuses on an extract of the Egyptian sample's culture.
Part B, the empirical analysis, treats the theoretical background of the design of the
study completed by Egyptian and German students and analyses the results. Chapter
four explains the steps involved in the empirical research with regard to the concept and
process of data collection. Moreover, it describes the two questionnaires with the first
one being based on the quantitative approach and the second one on the qualitative
research approach. The last part of chapter four introduces the reader to the criteria of
corporate website design and applies those to the six selected company websites. The
results are then analysed in chapter five in order to compare and interpret the role of
culture in online communication with regard to the two subcultures. Additionally, these
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
4
findings are used to adapt the existing concepts of lifestyle typologies to the
investigated subcultures thus deriving a new model of six lifestyle typologies. Finally,
the outcomes is summarised in chapter six and conclusions tailored to these groups are
drawn. Based on this knowledge, related marketing activities can be recommended and
the necessity for either adaptation or standardisation of corporate websites with regard
to the cultural groupings can be derived.
Figure 1: Roadmap of the thesis
1
1
Own illustration
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
5
2
M
ETHODOLOGY
2.1
T
HE
I
NDUCTIVE
A
PPROACH
The fundamentals of a research paper are the sound investigation of the existing
literature and its careful examination. Therefore the target of this study is to gain a
valuable insight into the prevailing research and theories and to classify these findings.
Nevertheless, the core part of this paper represents the empirical study which is based
on inductive conclusions being a method of the empirical science (Popper, 2005, p.2).
A characteristic of the inductive approach is that it allows drawing conclusions from
particular and partial knowledge to generally-accepted and justified knowledge with
regard to the itemised object (Christoffer, 1989, p.13). In short, it means learning by
reflection upon specific past experiences and then formulating abstract concepts,
theories and generalisations that on their part explain past and forecast future as well as
experience (Gill and Johnson, 2002, p.40). In the case of this research the itemised
objects are Egyptian and German students.
In detail, reasons for choosing the inductive approach are the following:
·
The use of small sample sizes (Egyptian students: N=18/18, German students:
N=34/22) while conducting the research.
·
Due to the fact of a prevailing small sample size the research is not
representative and generalisations cannot be made (Saunders, Lewis and
Thornhill, 2000, p.91).
·
However, conclusions are partially drawn from experience (Christoffer, 1989,
p.22). Glaser and Straus (1967) already argued in their book "The Discovery of
Grounded Theory" that explanations should be grounded in observations and
experience. They additionally claim that theory which is inductively developed
is more likely to fit the data and therefore is more likely to be plausible, useful
and accessible (Glaser and Straus, 1967 in Gill and Johnson, 2002, p.40).
·
The inductive approach enables the research to be flexible with regard to the
results (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2000, p.91).
·
With inductive-empirical research, the complex reality construct is classified
and therefore facilitates comprehensibility (Christoffer, 1989, p.22).
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
6
·
Hence, this approach is suitable for comparisons (Saunders, Lewis and
Thornhill, 2000, p.91). In this case it is the comparison of German and Egyptian
students with respect to their online behaviour which might be influenced by
their value systems.
In contrast to the inductive approach, the "deductive research method entails the
development of a conceptual and theoretical structure prior to its testing through
empirical observation" (Gill and Johnson, 2002, p.34). Popper
2
, a supporter of the
deductive approach, claims that theories can never be proved true, but they can be
falsified as only one contradictory observation is required (Popper, 2005, p.61 et seq.).
Therefore, conclusions are never true but solely temporarily valid and every failed effort
of falsification makes the correspondent theory more proved and accepted (Mayer,
2004, p.20). Figure two illustrates the differences between the inductive and the
deductive research method.
Figure 2: Induction versus deduction
3
Nevertheless, the problem with the deductive research method is that the process of
testing and justification of the examined ideas is more important than the sources of the
2
Karl Raimund Popper (*1902, 1994) set down his view with regard to the philosophy of science in the
book "Logik der Forschung" (1934) which enjoyed great agreement as well as disagreement. In this book
he produced the theory of falsification, meaning that knowledge can never be assured, but is temporarily
accepted (www.philosophenlexikon.de).
3
Own illustration
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
7
theories and hypothesis themselves. In short, the deductive approach in research is
closely bound up with what is often called "positivism"
4
(Gill and Johnson, 2002, p.39).
Therefore deduction seems more appropriate for natural science while induction is
advisable for social sciences research on which basis this analysis will be conducted
(Gill and Johnson, 2002, p.40 et seq.).
2.2
E
THNOGRAPHIC
A
PPROACH
"Ethnos" describes a human group which is characterized by its own lifestyle and its
culture (Rudolph in Müller, König, Koepping and Drechsel, 1984, p.37).
Ethnography is generally seen as a part of cultural studies but nevertheless comprises
aspects of social science as well as historical data analysis. Furthermore, ethnography is
the investigation of the unknown with regard to mankind (Müller, König, Koepping
and Drechsel, 1984, p.41 et seq.). At this stage, it should be noted that ethnography as
well as social science are subject to the constant change of society and its values
constructs. This entails that the relation of ethnography and social science varies as well
(Müller, König, Koepping and Drechsel, 1984, p.36). Furthermore, the ethnographic
approach is basically that of anthropology and enables the fieldworker to use the
socially obtained and shared knowledge to account for the observed patterns of human
activity. The main characteristic is based on the so-called naturalist modes of inquiry
5
,
such as interviewing or observing participants, within a preponderant inductivist
framework. The involvement of the term ethnomethodology is essential in this context
(Gill and Johnson, 2002, p.123 et seq.). This term was initially formulated by Garfinkel
(1967) and relates to the attempt to uncover and examine the "taken for granted"
meanings and expectations that confirm society members' courses of action (Garfinkel,
1967 in Gill and Johnson, 2002, p.125). It represents a sociological discipline and
assumes that these members use routines and practices (=methods) for their daily
actions (http://gais.ids-mannheim.de) in order to make sense of the world regarding its
complex pattern and displays the understanding of it, hence producing the social order
in which we live (www.hewett.norfolk.sch.uk). This methodology uses qualitative and
4
Positivism: a 20
th
century philosophical movement holding characteristically that all meaningful
statements are either analytic or conclusively verifiable or at least confirmable by observation and
experiment and that metaphysical theories are thus strictly meaningless (www.m-w.com).
5
The naturalistic approach is an approach that seeks to understand phenomena in context-specific settings
in qualitative research (http://scholar.lib.vt.edu).
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
8
quantitative research approaches whereas the qualitative approach is prevailing (Gill
and Johnson, 2002, p.125). Out of the above mentioned statements it can be derived that
this study also comprises aspects of an ethnographic approach.
This research does not include the full battery of ethnographic methods, but is limited to
some extent. For instance, no observations but interrogation of students are conducted
and therefore the field role is limited to that of a spectator as the researchers fail to gain
access to and to understand the cultural underpinnings of the subjects' actual behaviour
and actions. Despite a sound analysis and evaluation, the hidden danger is that findings
might be from a perspective and rationality of the researchers' culture thus easily
creating dichotomous biases (Gill and Johnson, 2002, p.143 et seq.). Nevertheless, as
both researchers are of German origin and both have studied the Arabic language and
culture during their university time, conclusions can be drawn from experience which
are as mentioned earlier not representative but result from a subjective nature.
2.3
R
ESEARCH
A
PPROACH
:
E
XPLORATORY
A
PPROACH
In general, in marketing research, a distinction between explorative, descriptive, and
explicative approaches can be made.
Within this study it is concentrated on the exploratory approach as new insights are
desired. Additionally, the existing knowledge in the investigated and interested field has
been insufficient and unstructured so far (Nieschlag, Dichtl and Hörschgen, 2002, p.381
et seq.). The exploratory approach is appropriate for formulating problems, hypotheses
and clarifying terms. Besides, it provides a better understanding of a given area
(www.dye.no). In summary the research issue cannot be defined precisely on the basis
of the prevailing state of knowledge.
The reasons for the use of the exploratory approach include the following:
·
There is a lack of literature regarding this topic and/or little relevant legality is
known so far.
·
One can possibly trace back the observing question to a general problem
whose solution is known.
Furthermore, the exploratory approach often communicates a first established insight
in the structure of a problem (Nieschlag, Dichtl and Hörschgen, 2002, p.381 et seqq.).
Moreover, exploratory research design is the basis of subsequent, conclusive research
design methods, namely descriptive or causal design (www.dye.no). Therefore this type
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
9
of research is widely used for preparation of a consecutive deeper research (Kromrey,
2006, p.71).
The target of this research is to formulate potential interactions between the online
behaviour of the respective German and Egyptian students and its impact of culture by
means of a sound investigation of the prevailing literature, the questionnaires as well as
the subjective experience of the researchers. It should be noted, that because of the
small number of respondents involved, the exploratory research method cannot be used
to generalise the population. Therefore, this paper represents a basis for further
research in that area.
To ensure the sound investigation of the prevailing theories regarding this research, a
review of literature is covered in the following chapter.
3
R
EVIEW OF
L
ITERATURE
This part of the thesis treats the accessible literature in respect to the topic in order to
provide the reader with the necessary theoretical background on a general level.
Therefore, it seems to be indispensable to firstly define the term culture as a collective
phenomenon by selected theoreticians. Due to the focus of this thesis the emphasis is
then laid on the Egyptian identity, patterns of change as well as values and beliefs.
In order to maintain the completeness of the review, the socio-cultural factors of
international marketing is taken into consideration afterwards. The aim is to find
appropriate segmentation methods which respect culture in general. For this purpose,
the theory of cross-national lifestyles seems to be appropriate and is therefore covered at
a later stage of this paper.
3.1
C
ULTURE
:
E
GYPT AS AN
E
XEMPLIFICATION
3.1.1
Definition of the Term Culture
The term culture retrieves severe difficulties concerning its uniform definition as most
of its elements are hardly concrete. During the literature review the two most adequate
definition approaches proved to be the ones according to Webster's 3
rd
International
Dictionary and Ronald R. Rohner as they avoid the tendency to cluster different cultures
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
10
into dimensions which is a widely used method by other experts such as Hofstede and
Trompenaars.
In Webster's publication, the term culture is "a complex and comprehensive pattern of
human behaviour and its products embodied in thought, speech, action, and artefacts"
(1996, p.552). Moreover, Rohner (1984) claims that culture provides a common
knowledge pool of human beings which feeds all observable behaviour, products
(artefacts), non-observable psychological processes, and the way in which behaviour
and products are interpreted (Rohner, 1984, p.112). As these approaches show, culture
comprises many different facets. Due to the topic of this research, the entire Egyptian
historical data, demographic development, and factors which are surely influencing the
Egyptian culture but have no essential impact on this research and its results are not
covered in this paper. Moreover, it is avoided discussing the German culture for the
following reasons:
·
Both researchers are of German origin.
·
Selected aspects of the German sample's culture will be discussed on the
basis of the culture-related questionnaire.
3.1.2
Selective Aspects of the Egyptian Culture
3.1.2.1
The Egyptian Identity
The perception of Westerners regarding Egypt is often limited to a country with desert,
Pyramids, Pharaohs, the Nile and the Red Sea. On the contrary, the Egyptians perceive
themselves and their country in a more diverse way. Even though the Sahara desert
makes up 96.5 per cent of the country, the Egyptians do not consider the desert as part
of their environment (Ibrahim and Ibrahim, 2003, p.8). This results in the fact that the
Egyptian population is only concentrated on a recognisable small percentage of its
territory (Bates and Rassam, 2001, p.13).
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
11
Generally speaking, the Egyptian population can be differentiated in:
1.
The fellahs: People who live in
the rural areas (Arabic:
fellaheen).
2.
The urban population: People
who live in the cities (Arabic:
madaniyya).
3.
People of Lower Egypt: People
who live in the North of the
country (Arabic: baharwa).
4.
People of Upper Egypt: People
who live in the South of the
country
(Arabic: sa'ayda)
(Ibrahim and Ibrahim, 2003, p.8).
Figure 3: Map of Egypt
6
According to the Egyptian geographer Gamal Hamdan, the Egyptian identity consists of
four elements: (1) African, (2) Asian, (3) Mediterranean, and (4) Nile-related. This
categorisation is broadened by the Seven Pillars of Egyptian Identity (1989) of Milad
Hanna, a Coptic Writer. Four of the pillars are historically determined while the others
are of geographic or cultural nature: (1) Pharaonic, (2) Greco-Roman, (3) Coptic-
Christian, (4) Islamic, (5) Arab world, (6) Mediterranean region, and (7) Africa.
Therefore, the conclusion can be drawn that the country and its people are culturally
divers. Nevertheless, a unity could have been preserved (Ibrahim and Ibrahim, 2003,
p.11).
3.1.2.2
Patterns of Change
Already with the colonialisation of the British and French Empire and the American
Christian Missions during the 19
th
century, an influence of Western culture was
initiated. This had an impact on the educational and the political system which was
adapted to Western (especially European) standards. Nevertheless, generally stated, the
6
http://bladon.com
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
12
authentic Egyptian character and the perceived identity had not altered during that
period (Fahmy, 2002, p.36). In the beginning of the 20
th
century the Egyptians
rediscovered their nationalism and therefore started to fight for their independence
which they finally gained in 1922 (Ibrahim and Ibrahim, 2003, p.11 et seq.).
In recent times, social changes due to the adoption of Western technology, consumer
products, health care systems and so forth have occurred (Nydell, 1996, p.1). This
Westernisation
7
may have a multilateral effect letting the Egyptians decide on their
own to either strike the path of modernisation or traditionalism or to choose individually
a wise combination of both. Nevertheless, they have conserved their flowery language
as well as their reading and writing behaviour from the right to the left side.
Obviously, this multilateral effect creates a situation of dichotomy for the Egyptian
people who are representatively described in the subsequent extract of Dr. Ghazi A.
Algosaibi's essay: "Arab and Western civilisation":
"To sum up: We must not take an attitude to the West based on
sentiment, emotion or fanaticism. We must scrutinise the
elements of Western civilisation carefully, and in doing so
learn from its sciences and identify in its intellectual heritage
those areas which we may need to adopt or acquire. At the
same time, we must recognize its callous traits so that we may
repudiate them out of hand. Perhaps in such a balanced view
there will be something that will help us to build anew in our
land a new and vital Arab way of life (...)." (Dr. Ghazi A.
Algosaibi cited in Nydell, 1996, p.6)
This indicates that both modern and traditional attitudes are present in today's Egyptian
society leading to an effect of dualism which might result in internal conflicts (Nydell,
1996, p.7; Ibrahim and Ibrahim, 2003, p.14).
Moreover, it can be stated that the term Westernisation could be used to some extent
synonymously with modernisation and development but it has simultaneously provoked
7
Westernisation: Is the process when Western cultures influence traditional and long-established
societies.
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
13
the Egyptian population into reclaiming to its own and original cultural heritage (von
Korff, 2003, p.52).
Bearing this in mind, hereafter the focus is put on beliefs and values with the most
relevant ones for this research, namely religion, family, national pride, and tradition.
Herewith it should be noted that one has to distinguish between people living in rural
areas who lead a life according to religion and tradition and urban people who permit
new influences but nonetheless preserve tradition and religion. Moreover, literature
tends to generalise cultural groups to simplify the complexity and consequently,
findings cannot be applied to every individual. The literature consulted for this part of
the paper includes on the one hand benchmarks and on the other hand a book
comprising a recently conducted representative poll of Zogby International
8
. This
survey is not universally valid but should represent an approximation to better
understand the Egyptian culture.
3.1.2.3
Beliefs and Values
As beliefs and values usually determine the daily life, it is indispensable to describe
them in order to gain an appropriate insight into the Egyptian culture. It should be
noted that the Egyptian social class has a tremendous influence on the intensity and how
values and beliefs are passed on. In the following, a brief excursus about the Egyptian
social structure is given.
There is no uniform classification of the Egyptian social
structure. By the majority of literature and internet sources it is
stated that two main socio-economic groupings exist in the
Egyptian society which have relatively strict boundaries. The
first comprises a small wealthy elite and a Western-educated
upper middle class which makes up about ten per cent of the
Egyptian society. This group is very dominant as it exercises the
social, economic, and political control over the country. The
second grouping consists of the majority of the Egyptian people,
8
"What Arabs think: Their Values, Beliefs and Concerns". A study conducted by Dr. James J. Zogby
(Zogby International, Arab American Institute) with 3,800 Arabs in eight countries (Lebanon, United
Arab Emirates, Jordan, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Israel, and Egypt).
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
14
including the peasants, the lower middle class and the working
class. Egypt's most severe issues are poverty and
overpopulation which affect predominantly the latter group
(Nydell, 1996, p.81f.; http://arabworld.nitle.org). The differences
of the social classes are becoming even more apparent through
the social changes which were defined earlier.
Getting back to the Egyptian perception of values and beliefs, traditionally regarded,
honour, dignity, and reputation have been of huge importance and still take up a
notable part of the Egyptian value system. Further, loyalty takes a superior position
over personal needs and social class as well as family background are still the main
determinants of personal status. Moreover, Egyptians strongly believe in destiny and
lead their life according to God's wills (Nydell, 1996, p.21). These aspects generally
come to one's mind when reflecting the values of Muslims
9
but in order to meet the
claim of a proper and modern illustration of the Egyptian culture, other values mostly
enforced by recent developments and social changes - have to be taken into account.
Like people all over the world, Egyptians strive for personal security, self-fulfilment,
and satisfaction. Most important are those beliefs and values that affect them directly
such as religion, the quality of work, family, job security, and friends (Zogby, 2002,
chapter 2). It can be observed that the highest priority is given to religion regardless of
age and gender. Precisely because religion is such an important value, it will be
examined later in this chapter.
Moreover, values which are of importance for the education of children and taught by
their parents are amongst others: Responsibility, religious faith, obedience, and good
health, respect of age and authority, achievement of a better life, self-respect, self-
reliance, creativity, and tolerance of others
10
.
The table illustrated below shows the naming, the percentages and the rankings
according to the survey of Zogby International. It highlights that even though the
9
90 per cent of the Egyptian population is Muslim, nine per cent Copts, one per cent Christians
(www.cia.gov).
10
This reflects the predetermined choice of answers given to the 3,800 respondents and does not cover all
values which can be - in that respect - taken into consideration.
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
15
Egyptian culture has been influenced by modernisation and Westernisation the
traditional values such as religion and self-respect remain at the top of the mentions.
Values
Percentage (ranking)
Religious faith
95 (1)
Self-respect
93 (2)
Responsibility
93 (2)
Achieve a better life
92 (4)
Respect elder
91 (5)
Good health
90 (6)
Self-reliance
89 (7)
Serious work habits
88 (8)
Obedience
87 (9)
Tolerance of others
83 (10)
Creativity
71 (11)
Table 1: Importance of values to be taught to children
11
Religion
As noted before, piety and religious faith are still core values of the Egyptian culture
and officially every Egyptian citizen believes in Allah
12
and has a religious affiliation
which results in the refusal to separate the state and church like in Western countries
(Nydell, 1996, p.21). Daily life is not only dominated by religious rites because of
prayer time but also by the open expression of their religious belief. It needs to be
noticed that marriage and divorce are still ruled by the religious law system. Further,
Islam plays an important role in politics and business and determines its exercise
(Nydell, 1996, p.99 et seq.). These circumstances are well-known, have been frequently
discussed and are finally confirmed by the latest poll of Zogby International. It can be
filtered out of this survey that religion plays the most important role in the life of the
Egyptian people, may it be professional or private (Zogby, 2002, chapters 2, 3, 6, 8).
11
Own illustration based on Zogby, E-book, 2002, chapter 3.
12
Allah is the Arabic translation of God.
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
16
Family
One of the most important elements in the Egyptian social organisation is the family
(Bates and Rassam, 2001, p.201). Egyptian society is built around an extended family
system and therefore individuals feel a strong affiliation to all their family members
(Nydell, 1996, p.87). This family construct embraces a broader concept which is
normally not common in the Western world. The unconditional support within a
family displays on the one hand the high degree of loyalty and on the other hand an
obligation which is expected by the relatives. In general, Egyptians are notably proud of
their lineage and set a high value on the reputation of any family member. Status in a
family is closely related to a person's age thus paying tribute to the elderly (Nydell,
1996, p.88 et seq.).
Marriage customs have undergone recent changes and are not strictly arranged by
family members anymore. Herewith it should be differentiated between the urban and
the rural families with the rural families being more traditional with regard to family
matters. They feel that marriage is a major decision and should be left with the family in
order to avoid that the decision is not solely based on emotions and romantic feelings.
On the contrary, the urban people tend to either choose their partner themselves or at
least have a voice in that concern. This is a result of foreign influences which they faced
in their adolescence (own execution based on Nydell, 1996, p.91; Bates and Rassam,
2001, p.215).
National Pride
In general, the Arab world has a distinct pride of its cultural heritage and its countries.
This can be confirmed by the poll of Zogby International. When they are asked the
question: What is the most important thing you would want the rest of the world to know
about your country?, the majority of 43.8 per cent
13
indicate their country as being most
important to them. Here the country's civilisation and its historic past play a major role.
13
This percentage is composed of: Egyptian civilization (16); archaeological sites (9.7); mother of the
world (6.9); tourism (3.7); history of Egypt (1.8); Nile River (1.6); pyramids (1.6); civilization of
pharaohs (1.4); Cairo (1.1).
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
17
On second position, culture and people
14
are named which highlights once more that
civilisation as well as cultural heritage is essential in the Egyptian society. Nevertheless,
it must be declared that national pride is again highly dominated by religious beliefs and
their execution.
Tradition
In etymology, tradition comes from Latin traditio which means the action of handing
over. In Webster's Dictionary, the term tradition has several definition approaches:
·
An inherited, established, or customary pattern of thought, action, or
behaviour (as a religious practice or a social custom);
·
a belief or story or a body of beliefs or stories relating to the past that are
commonly accepted as historical though not verifiable;
·
the handing down of information, beliefs, and customs by word of mouth or
by example from one generation to another without written instruction;
·
cultural continuity in social attitudes, customs, and institutions
(www.m-w.com).
There are different ways one can live out tradition, either it is deeply rooted and part of
one's daily life or tradition is combined with modern aspects and influences. This does
not mean that Egyptians abandon their traditional roots but rather are open towards new
lifestyles which are then merged with their tradition.
At this stage, a detailed analysis of the Egyptian tradition is avoided. However, a brief
exemplification of its definition is given in order to contribute to a better understanding
for the empirical study provided in chapter four.
3.2
D
ETERMINANTS OF
I
NTERNATIONAL
M
ARKETING
Having defined the term culture, this part of the thesis provides the reader with culture
in direct context with international marketing. Basically, the determinants of
international marketing can be divided up into external and internal factors. Due to
the topic of the paper, this chapter focuses on the environmental factors of international
marketing as socio-cultural elements play an important role as they are part of the
14
This percentage is composed of: Islam (7.8); goodness of population (5.8); culture (2.6); generosity of
population (2.2); traditions and customs (2.2); diversity of religions (1.2); sports (0.3).
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
18
external or exogenous determinants. These factors can either be specific for the
investigated company or they can be of general relevance for international marketing.
Figure 4: Framework of international marketing
15
As figure four illustrates international marketing is highly influenced by environmental
influences. According to this model the essential elements of the macro environment of
a company are:
·
Political and legal factors,
·
economic factors and infrastructure,
·
geographic factors,
·
socio-demographic and socio-cultural factors
·
and technological factors.
The relevance of each influencing factor depends on the unique situation of the
company and its industry. The different basic conditions are influenced by the country
itself, its markets and structure which result in a homogeneous or heterogeneous
business environment. Thus, especially international marketing is exposed to increasing
dynamic and continuous change (Schramm-Klein, Swoboda and Zentes, 2006, p.19).
15
Own illustration based on Schramm-Klein, Swoboda and Zentes, 2006, p.19.
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
19
The following two core strategies are widely accepted in marketing: adaptation or
differentiation versus standardisation. The need for either the one or the other strategy
depends on different concepts by theorists which will be discussed subsequently
emphasising socio-cultural factors of international marketing (Baker in Monye, 2000,
p.21).
3.2.1
Socio-cultural Factors
Culture is seen as one of the most important factors of international marketing as it has
a relevant impact on the actions and reactions of consumer groups towards marketing
efforts (Kotler and Bliemel, 2001, p.326). As a result of the discussion of the term
culture in chapter 3.1 it can be stated that this phenomenon is a highly influencing
determinant concerning the behaviour of all human beings and therefore also of
consumers (Schramm-Klein, Swoboda and Zentes, 2006, p.20). At this stage a
theoretical construct of culture is provided in figure five in addition to the previous
chapter in order to examine the importance of culture and its dimensions in international
marketing.
Figure 5: Explicative-descriptive model of culture
16
According to current research, cultural distance between producer or vendor of a
product and the potential customer are of tremendous importance in B2B and B2C
16
Müller and Gelbrich, 2004, p.69
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
20
relationships. Noticeable is the fact that cultural borders are not necessarily identical
with national borders. This fact is of specific relevance for the survey and is discussed
in the following chapters. The focus is now put on the most evident differences of
cultural groupings in general.
Inevitably, the most evident difference occurring in international marketing context is
language thus having an impact on the communication policy of a company. Moreover,
religious differences have an essential influence on the sales opportunities of a product
and the perception of marketing activities. Furthermore, different values and norms
mostly determine the acceptance or refusal of a service or product in another culture.
Some country-of-origin effects can be observed here such as the local-content behaviour
of consumers e.g. "buy British" or protective behaviour. Purchase decisions may also be
influenced by the reputation of a country or culture like the "made in ..." effect
concerning a specific foreign country or producer (Schramm-Klein, Swoboda and
Zentes, 2006, p.20 et seq.).
Different customs and habits also have an influence e.g. concerning nutrition and the
perceived value of a product which may differ from one culture to the other, hence
confronting companies with the need of a different commutative positioning of the
product.
In regard to the current development of consumer behaviour two opposite
developments can be noticed.
Firstly, a convergence, especially influenced by the typical cross-border market
segments characterised by a homogenous consumer group. Secondly, a fragmentation
of consumer behaviour with two types of products and services: culture-bound
17
and
culture-free
18
. For a better understanding the reader is at this stage provided with a brief
excursus on the approach of culture-bound versus culture-free products and services.
The culture-bound approach focuses on the conviction that all
marketing activities need to be adapted to cultural determinants
and therefore make culture the central influencing factor which is
included consciously and proactively in the marketing strategy
(Schramm-Klein, Swoboda and Zentes, 2006, p.41). This
17
Culture-bound products and services are e.g. publishers, sweets, nutrition, textiles etc.
18
Culture-free products and services are e.g. IT services, computer hardware, airlines etc.
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
21
approach is also a component of transnational marketing and is
specified later on.
The culture-free approach is often described as culture
imperialistic because it is a highly standardised marketing
strategy mostly without any adaptation to the specific culture. For
further categorisation it can be noticed that this approach is also
realised with the globalisation strategies in international
marketing which is examined and distinguished from
transnational marketing in the next chapters.
3.2.2
Globalisation Approach the Convergence Thesis
The debate of globalisation in international marketing was initiated by Theodore
Levitt's article "The globalisation of markets" which was published in 1983. Levitt
claimed that customer groups and their demand became more and more homogeneous
as a result of cultural convergence led by the industrialised countries
(www.civildiscourse.rwu.edu). This is also described as the "global village"
phenomenon
19
where the customer tends to replace his/her individual identity by a
collective identity. The convergence thesis is built on the international adjustment of
educational systems and the worldwide access to information as a result of the modern
information and communication technology (Hermanns and Wissmeier, 1995, p.18).
Nevertheless, Levitt's convergence thesis faces a lack of respect towards culture as it
is a universal concept of cross-cultural groups requiring no longer the regard of cultural
differences and adaptation (Vollert, 2004, p.36). Similarly, global concepts have also
been developed e.g. the concept of triads
20
by Ohmae (Ohmae, 1995, p.12).
Generally stated, the globalisation approach can be mainly applied to culture-free
products and services which allow a high degree of international standardisation and
distribution e.g. for industrial and high-technology products such as computer hardware
(Baker in Monye, 2000, p.22). It is noticeable that some multinational companies e.g.
Coca-Cola tried to realise Levitt's strategy with a disastrous result (Keegan,
Schlegelmilch and Stöttinger, 2002, p.12).
19
Also often called "glocalisation"
20
The triad consists of the three largest economies, namely NAFTA, EU, and the industrialised East
Asian countries.
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
22
3.2.3
Adaptation Need the Divergence Approach
Even though some products surely have a universal appeal, many cannot show this
feature. In contradiction to the convergence theory, other researchers e.g. Horn and
Davidson insist on the adaptation need of international marketing as people from
various cultures demand individualisation. This tendency towards divergence is also
indicated by rediscovery of cultural regional or even local behaviour patterns which
require the individual adaptation of international marketing as well as an intercultural
marketing approach (Zentes, Swoboda and Morschett, 2004, p.104). Here, especially
culture-bound products and services are affected which presuppose an international
differentiation and adaptation.
In this part, the focus is on two approaches which derive from the adaptation need
theory: (1) the intercultural approach, and (2) the transnational marketing approach.
3.2.3.1
Intercultural Approach in International Marketing
As mentioned before, culture is an important determinant in international marketing and
therefore it can be stated that international market segmentation is indispensable for
successful international marketing. As cultural heterogeneity can even be observed
within a country, intranational market segmentation in respect to different cultures
and subcultures occurring in one society or nation might be required.
This indicates that an intercultural approach in international marketing can be useful
when (1) considering different various cultures or (2) even just considering one nation
or country which features e.g. heterogeneous lifestyles or needs (Schramm-Klein,
Swoboda and Zentes, 2006, p.65).
The difficulty here is the identification of homogeneous cultures and the clustering of
these groups by the use of specific criteria (Müller and Gelbrich, 2004, p.439). Most
international companies use a pragmatic approach in order to analyse and summarise
homogeneous clusters at the lowest efforts and on the basis of a few obvious criteria
such as language or geographical closeness. Apart from these approaches, the traditional
segmentation methods focus on:
·
Economic environment
o
integration (EU or non EU-member)
o
economic status (developing, emerging or industrialised country)
o
GDP PPP
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
23
·
Rivalry
o
communication strategy (monetary effort)
o
distribution policy (intermediaries, discounter etc.)
o
positioning of foreign competitors (market share, FDI etc.)
·
Customers
o
product usage (B2B or B2C)
o
usage of specific media
o
purchase frequency (between two purchases)
o
choice of purchase location (boutique, megastore etc.)
·
Communication style (direct versus indirect communication)
·
Decision-making behaviour
·
Structure of family ties (single versus family)
Beside these superficial features for segmentation, culture becomes steadily more
important and leads to other segmentation approaches. Most literature of intercultural
marketing refers to the theory of Hofstede and Trompenaars in order to cluster different
cultures. But as stated before these approaches will be avoided in this thesis.
3.2.3.2
The Transnational approach in International Marketing
Cross-border or transnational target groups do not disagree with the above mentioned
divergence theory (Schramm-Klein, Swoboda and Zentes, 2006, p.60). Moreover, these
groups are characterised by consumer groups of different countries which have similar
lifestyles
21
and which are rather connected cross-border than with members of their own
culture (Müller and Gelbrich, 2004, p.525). Mostly these transnational consumer groups
can be characterised by their similar general attitudes and social status such as the
following features:
·
Less identification with their own culture and strong interest in and open,
positive attitude towards foreign products and services,
·
urban environment,
·
high level of education and over-average income
·
and internationally experienced as well as often travelling.
21
lifestyles are the common cultural and subcultural patterns of behaviour may they be individual or
collective and they express the values and targets of consumers as well as sustainable and stable
developments (Zentes, Swoboda and Morschett, p.104).
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
24
According to literature, transnational segmentation methods are a kind of
psychographic segmentation dominated by four basic methods (Keegan,
Schlegelmilch and Stöttinger, 2002, p.245 et seq.).
Firstly, the Baker Spielvogel and Bates' Global scan which is based on a research of
18 countries mostly of the triad in order to investigate and finally forecast attitudes and
consumer behaviour. Five segments were founded: adapters, traditionalists, pressured,
achievers and strivers.
Secondly, the Euroconsumer Study of D'arcy Massius Benton and Bowles', which
concentrates on Europe and identifies four segmentations of lifestyles: successful
idealists, affluent materialists, comfortable belongers, and disaffected survivors.
Thirdly, Young and Rubicam developed the Cross Cultural Consumer
Characterisations (4 C's) which result from a study of 20 countries and from the
investigation of objectives, motives and values of consumers. The 4 C's are built on the
assumption that the basic human behaviour is free of cultural influences and
fundamental enough to be transferred worldwide. Consumers are divided up into three
main groups with subgroups: constrained (resigned poor and struggling poor), middle
majority (mainstreamers, aspirers and successors) and innovators (transitional and
reformers).
Finally, the probably most appropriate approach is the socio-style method or the
typology of lifestyles which is of considerable relevance for this thesis and therefore
treated separately in the next paragraph.
3.2.4
Approach of the Typology of Lifestyles
Socio-demographic factors are not sufficient to explain consumer behaviour because
product awareness, perception of advertising and, consequently, buying decisions are
influenced by more complex factors including value orientations (Kofler, 2005, p.3).
This need for a new segmentation approach finally results in the typology of lifestyles
which is based on the assumption that consumer behaviour is dictated by their
lifestyles (Schnettler and Wendt, 2003, p.61 et seq.). Initially, the basic theory of this
approach was the idea that all individuals live according to established habits and
patterns of attitudes. It is the AIO-approach
22
which classifies this research attempt by
22
A = activities (result of the observable behaviour in the private and professional life), I = interests
(represent important aspects for an individual), O = opinion.
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
25
figuring out the basic value orientation and motives of the consumer's behaviour
(Berekoven, Eckert and Ellenrieder; 2001, p.253).
In the scope of the typology of lifestyles, the effort is undertaken to divide an entire
complexity up into different groupings which can be characterised by the same features
(Schnettler and Wendt, 2003, p.61 et seq.).
Orginally, this method was developed by the Centre de Communication Avancé
(CAA) in France in 1972 and later extended to other European countries (Keegan,
Schlegelmilch and Stöttinger, 2002, p.249). Today, the most famous provider of this
typology of lifestyles is the RISC institute and the Gesellschaft für Konsum-, Markt-,
und Absatzforschung e.V. (GfK's Euro-Socio-Styles) whereas the latter conducted
recently in collaboration with different European institutes an incomparable poll as far
as knowledge, investment and complexity is concerned. Based on 24,000 interviews of
15 participating countries
23
representing eight demographic variables and 3,500 AIO
variables, 15 Euro-Social-Styles were developed which categorise consumer groups and
their preferences (Koch, 2004, p.206 / Berekoven, Eckert and Ellenrieder, 2001, p.253).
The precise definition and names of these lifestyles differ in the vast literature.
Nevertheless, this approach is considered to be the most appropriate one for a modern
and assiduous segmentation of consumer behaviour and is therefore illustrated below.
23
Note of the authors: the GfK indicates 16 countries even though the used literature just mention 15
countries.
Intercultural Issues in Online Communication: A German-Egyptian Comparison
26
Figure 6: Illustration of the Euro-Socio-Styles (2002)
24
Figure six illustrates the European values on a map with the following four key
classifications:
1.
Mirage: Materialism, fatalism, frustration, social encapsulation, social mistrust
Need: Having
2.
Permanence: Reserve, precaution, withdrawal to traditions, retreat
Need: Peace and security
3.
Reality: Reason, harmony, self-development, reforms, social trust, compassion
Need: Being
4.
Metamorphosis: Dynamism, change, liberty, risk taking, success, cultural
exchange
Need: Passionate life
The GfK Institute derived the subsequent eight lifestyles out of the survey which are
meant to highly influence consumer behaviour:
1.
Crafty world: Young, dynamic and opportunistic people of simple origin
searching for success and independence.
24
Own illustration based on Schramm-Klein, Swoboda and Zentes, 2006, p.104.
Details
- Seiten
- Erscheinungsform
- Originalausgabe
- Jahr
- 2006
- ISBN (eBook)
- 9783956361753
- ISBN (Paperback)
- 9783836601412
- Dateigröße
- 3.8 MB
- Sprache
- Englisch
- Institution / Hochschule
- Hochschule Heilbronn, ehem. Fachhochschule Heilbronn – Wirtschaft
- Erscheinungsdatum
- 2007 (Februar)
- Note
- 1,3
- Schlagworte
- indien onlinekommunikation daimlerchrysler egypt lifestyle
