News flows from Latin America to the British press

Oeffner, Annalena

News flows from Latin America to the British press

A critical analysis

von Annalena Oeffner (Autor:in)

Medien / Kommunikation - Printmedien, Presse

Zusammenfassung

Inhaltsangabe:Zusammenfassung:
Der Nachrichtenfluss von Entwicklungs- zu Industrieländern wird seit Jahrzehnten heftig debattiert. Auch den britischen Medien wird eine unausgewogene Auslandsberichterstattung vorgeworfen, die ein verzerrtest Bild der Realität zeigt. Diese Arbeit analysiert die Nachrichten über Lateinamerika in der britischen Presse und richtet dabei besondere Aufmerksamkeit auf die Autoren der Artikel und darauf, wer über Lateinamerika zu Worte kommt. In welchem Maße sich Einheimische in den britischen Zeitungen Gehör verschaffen können wird dabei ebenso behandelt wie die Bedeutung von alternativen Quellen (z.B. andere Nachrichtenagenturen als die Großen Drei). Die Gründe für redaktionelle Entscheidungen (wie z.B. der Einsatz von festen Korrespondenten anstelle von eingeflogenen Reportern, oder die Wahl der Nachrichtenagenturen) und journalistische Praktiken werden außerdem untersucht. Die folgenden Fragen sollen beantwortet werden:
- Welches Bild vermittelt die britische Presse von Lateinamerika?
- Auf welchem Wege fließen die Nachrichten von Lateinamerika zur britischen Presse? Wer schreibt sie?
- Welche Informationsquellen werden genutzt, welche vernachlässigt? Wird Einheimischen und alternativen Quellen Gehör verschafft?
Auf der Grundlage einer Inhaltsanalyse von fünf britischen broadsheet Zeitungen und Interviews mit britischen Korrespondenten in Lateinamerika sowie Lateinamerikanern, die in Großbritannien leben, weist diese Arbeit nach, dass viele der Bedenken, die vor 25 Jahren in den Debatten über globale Nachrichtenflüsse zum Ausdruck gebracht wurden, noch immer Relevanz haben. Obwohl sich viele Journalisten darum bemühen, dies zu ändern, tragen verschiedene Faktoren noch immer dazu bei, dass sie es meist nicht schaffen, die Öffentlichkeit mit ausgewogenen Berichten über Geschehnisse und Prozesse in Lateinamerika zu versorgen, die frei von Stereotypen sind und sich auf eine Vielzahl von Informationsquellen stützen. Hinweis: Diese Arbeit ist in englischer Sprache verfasst!

Abstract:
For several decades, the news flows from developing to industrialized countries have been a major issue of debate. In Britain, too, foreign reporting is said to be unbalanced, thus creating a distorted picture of reality. This study analyses the way in which news about Latin America is being covered by the British quality press, looking in particular at who writes the news and who is speaking about Latin America. It aims to […]

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Inhaltsverzeichnis

ID 9179

Oeffner, Annalena: News flows from Latin America to the British press - A critical analysis

Hamburg: Diplomica GmbH, 2005

Zugl.: University of Central Lancashire, Bachelorarbeit, 2003

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Abstract

This study analyses the news flows from Latin America to the British press. It asks where

the information about Latin America comes from, focusing on the authors of the stories as

well as on the sources of information. The paper aims to establish the extent to which locals

can make their voice heard in the British newspapers, and to which `alternative' sources (e.g.

news agencies other than the `Big Three') are being used. It also tries to explain the

underlying reasons for editorial decisions (the use of correspondents instead of `parachute

journalists', the choice of news agencies etc.) and journalistic practices involved. Based on a

content analysis of five British broadsheets and on interviews with Latin Americans living in

the UK and with British correspondents to Latin America, the study establishes that many of

the concerns that were expressed in the debate about global news flows twenty-five years ago

are still relevant. Journalists make honourable efforts, but, due to a number of factors, do not

succeed in providing the public with a balanced account of events as well as processes in

Latin America, one that is free from stereotypes and relies on a variety of information

sources.

Contents

III

Abstract ... II

Contents... III

Acknowledgements... V

1 Introduction ... 1

1.1 The problem ... 1

1.2 Definitions... 2

1.3 Approach ... 3

1.4 Originality ... 4

2 Literature Review... 5

2.1 Approaching the subject... 5

2.1.1 Introduction ... 5

2.1.2 The alternative paradigm... 6

2.1.3 Political-economic, socio-organizational and cultural approaches ... 6

2.1.4 Post-colonialism and cultural imperialism ... 8

2.1.5 The role of the media ... 8

2.2. Communication flows ... 9

2.2.1 The New World Information and Communication Order ... 9

2.2.2 News values... 10

2.2.3 Stereotypes ... 10

2.2.4 Public interest... 11

2.3 The voices in the media... 12

2.3.1 Correspondents... 12

2.3.2 Sources ... 12

2.3.3 Alternative news agencies... 14

3 Methodological Considerations... 16

3.1 Latin America in the news ... 16

3.1.1 Boundaries of the content analysis... 16

3.1.2 Methodology of the content analysis ... 17

3.1.3 Criteria for the content analysis ... 17

3.1.4 Limitations ... 18

3.2 Qualitative research... 20

3.2.1 Interviews ... 20

3.2.2 British journalists and editors... 20

3.2.3 The Latin American perspective ... 21

Contents

4 Analysis and Discussion ... 22

4.1 Latin America in the British press... 22

4.1.1 Quantity and quality of Latin American news ... 22

4.1.2 UK interests in Latin America ... 23

4.1.3 The `news net'... 24

4.2 On the News Agenda... 25

4.2.1 The crisis dimension... 25

4.2.2 Story selection ... 26

4.2.3 Financial news... 27

4.3 Understanding Latin America ... 28

4.3.1 Correspondents: locals vs foreigners... 28

4.3.2 Correspondents: outsiders vs integrated... 29

4.3.3 Stereotypes in the British press ... 29

4.4 Mainstream vs alternative sources of information ... 31

4.4.1 Types of sources... 31

4.4.2 News agencies ... 32

4.4.3 `Ordinary' people in the news... 34

4.4.4 Co-operation with local journalists ... 34

4.4.5 `Alternative' sources of information ... 35

4.5 Summary ... 36

5 Conclusions ... 38

6 Bibliograph ... 40

7 Appendix ... 44

7.1 Appendix I: Interviews and Emails... 44

7.1.1 Latin Americans ... 44

7.1.2 News agencies ... 44

7.1.3 UK Foreign correspondents to Latin America ... 44

7.1.4 German journalists ... 44

7.2 Appendix II: Content analysis... 45

7.2.1 Nature of the articles ... 45

7.2.2 Sources ... 49

7.2.3 Authors ... 52

7.3 Appendix III: Data ... 53

7.3.1 Countries of the developing world ... 53

7.3.2 Circulation figures of the English national broadsheets... 54

Acknowledgements

The completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without all the helpful

people who willingly responded to my requenst and answered my questions. Special thanks to

David Adams, John Authers, Alex Bellos, José Luis Belmar, Michael Bromley, Jimmy Burns,

Gianni Carta, Alberto Dines, Phil Gunson, Ben Hewitt, Ramesh Jaura, Carlos v. Kreitmayr,

Wolfgang Kunath, Ulrich Ladurner, Richard Lapper, Ewen MacAskill, Jerry McDermott, Jan

McGirk, Lino Santacruz Moctezuma, Ruth Morris, Jader de Oliveira, Américo Dos Santos,

Peter Stevenson, Alberto Tamer, Carlos Vargas and Alex Whiting.

Thanks to Chris Paterson, who was so friendly to send me parts of his thesis.

I would also like to thank the librarians of the Lancashire County Library in Preston, who

found and carried the kilos of newspaper which were essential for the content analysis.

A special thanks to my supervisor Geoff Ward, who has advised me against this research

project all the way long, but who still gave me a lot of support and useful tips.

Finally, I want to thank all my mates and family who have made me keep smiling during

the time of writing this study.

Introduction

1.1 The problem

For several decades, the news flows from developing to industrialized countries have

been a major issue of debate. In Britain, too, foreign reporting is said to be unbalanced, thus

creating a distorted picture of reality. This dissertation attempts to analyse the way news

about Latin America is being covered by the British quality press, looking in particular at who

writes the news and who is speaking about Latin America. It tries to answer the following

questions:

What picture of Latin America do British broadsheets present?

How does news `flow' from Latin America to the British press? Who writes it?

Which sources of information are used, which are neglected? Can voices of locals

and `alternative' sources be heard?

The significance of the research problem becomes apparent when considering Cohen's

observation that the press "is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about"

(1963: 13; cf. McCombs and Shaw, 1972; McNair, 1998). Particularly in regard to a place

geographically as well as culturally as distant as Latin America, the media are the primary

source of information for many in Britain, thus being in a position to set the public's agenda

on issues relating to the region and determining their understanding or misunderstanding. The

voices that speak about Latin America are essential for shaping the comprehension of issues.

This study applies common communication theories to processes and practices in the `real

world'. The more this world claims to be `globalized', the more important it is to know about

other peoples; the easier it is also to receive information from a variety of sources. The

`Western' media in particular have all the technology available that is needed to inform their

audiences about other countries. Yet, the pictures many people have of most distant regions

are still distorted by lack of knowledge, which often results in stereotypes. It is essential to

assess the situation as it is and try to understand the underlying causes of the status quo. By

combining personal observations with a range of `expert voices' on the subject, the author of

this analysis aims to create a better understanding of what is being done and what could be

changed.

In the 1970s and 80s, a lot was being written about the unbalanced information flow

between developing and developed countries (cf. Masmoudi, 1979; Stevenson, 1984;

Sreberny-Mohammadi, 1984 et al.). The New World Information and Communication Order

Introduction

(NWICO) was proposed by the non-aligned countries of the developing world

, demanding

their right to communicate, which they perceived as being "to a significant degree influenced

by the structure and operations of the existing system of international news gathering supply"

(Boyd-Barrett and Thussu, 1992: 1). The debate has quietened down this, however, does not

imply that the problems of those days have ceased to exist. In 1997, Vincent acknowledged

the continuing relevance of the debated issues. Five years earlier, Boyd-Barrett and Thussu

(1992: 7) had claimed: "while the tone of the debate may have changed [...] there is still

substantial evidence to suggest that there are serious imbalances of information resources and

information flow between different geopolitical regions of the globe". Today, this still appears

to be reality; in fact, according to Gerbner, there is less balance than ever (in Harris, 1997:

156). This study takes up one of the issues under discussion the coverage of developing

countries in an industrialized nation and evaluates whether the original arguments and

demands can still be justified today.

1.2 Definitions

It is important to discuss certain terms which are frequently used in this dissertation.

Describing particular areas of the world, they often carry a certain ideological bias and cannot

be understood objectively.

All Latin America matches the World Bank's definition of `developing countries',

describing the low-income countries of the world according to Gross National Product and

per capita income (Glasgow Media Group, 2000)

. Development, as used in this study,

implies striving for decreasing the gap between the economic rich and poor, and not the literal

meaning of adapting to `Western' industrial and ideological standards. It is debatable whether

or not to include industrially developed countries such as Brazil or Mexico, which, because of

economic crises, foreign exploitation and vast differences in the distribution of wealth, have a

high level of poverty. As Paterson (1996: 1) points out, the term is nevertheless preferable to

the "somewhat pejorative Third World (vs. First World)' or misleading `South (vs. North)'".

The "very concept of the `Third World' is highly problematic", according to Reeves (1993:

6), especially since the disappearance of a `Second World' after the fall of the Soviet Union.

As the countries concerned become increasingly different from each other, it can hardly be

justified to use such a generalizing term. `Western', as used to describe the liberal

democracies of the `First World', is geographically incorrect and implies ideological value

The Non-Aligned Movement was formed in the 1950s by most independent developing countries, which pursued the

"policy of avoiding political or ideological affiliations with major power blocs" (Golding and Harris, 1997: 222).

For a list, see Appendix III.

Introduction

judgements (Ginneken, 1998: 9). In the absence of a more objective term, it will nevertheless

be referred to here. Frequently, scholars talk about the `periphery' as opposed to the centre.

Hamelink emphasizes that this "merely indicates that they are economically peripheral within

the global power that exists at present" (1995: 294).

Available at http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/images/rsepSouthAm.gif

The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) describes Latin America as "the parts of

the American continent where Spanish or Portuguese is the main national language (i.e.

Mexico and, in effect, the whole of Central and South America including many of the

Caribbean islands)". This study ignores all English-, French- and Dutch-speaking countries.

The media coverage of the Commonwealth-member Belize, for instance, may differ from that

of countries which have never had any colonial bonds with Britain. It makes sense to look at

Latin America rather than just South America, since newspapers tend to have `Latin America'

editors or correspondents, responsible for all twenty-three countries from the North of Mexico

down to Tierra del Fuego.

1.3 Approach

The research problem is being approached from a critical perspective, which is useful in

this context, as "its purpose is not merely to understand situations and phenomena but to

Introduction

change them. [...] It holds up to the lights of legitimacy and equality issues of repression,

voice, ideology, power, participation, representation, inclusion, and interests" (Cohen et al.,

2000: 28), all of which are dominant issues in this study. To ensure a broad understanding of

the problem, three different methods were used (`triangulation'):

a. A content analysis of three non-consecutive weeks examined the current coverage of

Latin America in the following broadsheets: The Daily Telegraph, Financial Times,

The Guardian, The Independent and The Times;

b. foreign editors and correspondents were interviewed;

c. Latin American residents in the UK were questioned about how they perceive the news

coverage of their countries of origin.

This dissertation was approached highly inductively in the sense that the author defined

the area of study first and, as the research was progressing, established a focus on particular

questions and issues. This approach was important, as the study attempts to demonstrate

current working practices, and how their implications are reflected in the actual news product.

Because the author did not have specialist knowledge in the area and since to the author's

knowledge there have been no recent studies on this particular subject, a general picture had

to be formed before the formulation of specific questions was possible. The idea for this

dissertation arose from the author's interest in Latin America and from her observation that it

is one of the regions most overlooked by the British media.

1.4 Originality

Most recent studies about news flows from developing countries have focused on

television news (Paterson, 1996; Glasgow Media Group, 2000; Stone, 2000; BBC and DFID,

2002; Philo, 2002 et al.), whereas newspapers, undoubtedly still a highly influential medium,

tend to be of less interest to researchers in this area of study. In British analyses about

developing countries, Africa and Asia tend to receive the greatest attention, presumably due

to former colonial links and to the notion that Africa, the `forgotten continent', is regarded to

be the region receiving the least media coverage (Knightley, 2002: 167). Keeble poses the

question whether the "marginalisation of African and Asian news [is] part of the general

`dumbing down' of foreign news in the media" (2001: 75). Although focusing on the

developing world in general, he does not mention Latin America; this is just another example

that the region is not only, like Africa and Asia, being largely ignored by the media, but that

even academics tend to forget that it is forgotten.

Literature

Review

2.1 Approaching the subject

2.1.1 Introduction

For decades, international communications have been subject to academic studies.

Sreberny-Mohammadi sums up,

"a lack of independent analysis, the acceptance of prevailing government

views on foreign policy issues, and the ignoring of other sources of information

color international news coverage, but production and economic pressures

compound the process. International news coverage is increasingly expensive, and

it does not regularly attract enormous audiences" (1995: 434).

According to Masmoudi, "transnational media impose their own way of seeing the

world" on developing countries and are indifferent to their "problems, concerns and

aspirations" (in Thussu, 2000: 172).

Sreberny-Mohammadi, in view of the 1979 `World of the News' study, suggests to move

away from that kind of quantitative studies and instead "focus on and help to explain how and

why this almost universal process of news selection has evolved: [...] studies that examine

existing alternative perspectives on the news" (1984: 132). The present study aims to do just

that. Relevant literature is being reviewed in this chapter.

Accessibility and language difficulties restricted the literature of Latin American authors.

Reeves justifies the predominant reliance on European and U.S.-American studies, from

which Latin American analyses do not differ substantially "since the dominant theoretical

traditions and shifts have been largely shared" (1993: vii). The validity of this argument is

debatable; however, if it is legitimate for studying the media environment within developing

countries (Reeves focuses on development communication), it will apply even more to the

study of British media.

The literature appears unbalanced. Scholars critical of international information flows are

much more numerous than those who either deny or approve of a `Western' domination.

Several studies are quite dated, in particular those concerning the NWICO debate of the 1970s

and 80s. They have to be treated with caution, as, alongside political changes, `Western'

reporting might have changed as well. This study attempts to assess the current validity of

some of those theories and concepts. Most English-language studies concern the United

States, whereas the reality of British media coverage is very different. Even though not

directly relating to Britain, they indicate possible areas of study.

Literature

Review

Development theories, proposed by scholars like Schramm or Lerner, are largely ignored

here, as they deal with communication within developing countries rather than with their

presentation abroad. Concepts such as the dominant paradigm or modernization theories

(which view development as copying the industrialised world's model) have been replaced by

new approaches, principally that of participation (Melkote, 1991).

2.1.2 The alternative paradigm

Traditionally, two opposing perspectives provide the basis for most communications

studies. The liberal-pluralist approach sees the media as decisive actor in a society where

everyone has the theoretical possibility of getting their voice heard. In practice, the

disadvantaged (social classes as well as countries, in the context of this study) have

nevertheless little access to the media. Liberal-pluralists would argue in favour of the news,

authors of news and sources of information that are most economical in a market-driven

society. An example is the tendency of international reporting to focus on events instead of

underlying processes, which requires less time and staff and, as a result, favours easily

accessible sources. This, critics must argue, will diminish the public's understanding of

international issues and result in their subsequent indifference towards them. This author

rejects the ideal of a free market, which, due to the pressure to publish circulation-boosting

human interest stories at the expense of public affairs coverage, "renders people less well

informed" (Curran, 2000: 128), and instead takes a critical perspective. McNair (1998)

proposes a `dominance paradigm', traditionally grounded in Marxism. For this study, an

adaptation of that concept, developed by McQuail, proves the most useful: an `alternative'

paradigm. It moved from the "concern with working-class subordinates to a wider view of

other kinds of domination" (2000: 50), relating to issues such as gender definition, cultural

identity, inequality, racism, environmental damage, world hunger and social chaos. According

to McQuail (ibid.), "these changes have been matched by a turn to more `qualitative' research,

whether into culture, discourse or the ethnography of mass media use". Further features of the

alternative paradigm are the preference for cultural or political-economic theories and a wide

concern with inequality and sources of opposition in society (ibid.: 51). It provides a useful

perspective for this analysis because of its focus on issues concerning cultural identity and the

`mental oppression' of disadvantaged groups.

2.1.3 Political-economic, socio-organizational and cultural approaches

Schudson distinguishes between a political-economic, a social-organizational, and a

cultural approach (2000: 177), the key features of which are outlined below. Each provides

Literature

Review

useful aspects for this analysis; it is impossible to confine oneself to a single approach when

studying a subject as complex as global news flows.

The `social-organizational' approach emphasizes the structures of the news organization,

the way these constrain journalists, and the interactions between the players involved in the

news-making process, e.g. between reporters and editors, or between reporters and official

sources (Schudson, 2000). This study considers social-organizational issues such as the

employment of correspondents and their autonomy. The focus lies however on the actual

consequences of organizational structures, i.e. news flows and the journalistic `products', both

of which fall into the areas of political economy and cultural approaches.

A `cultural' perspective takes into account the cultural milieu in which the news was

`produced'. Although these `cultural roots' cannot explain everything, aspects such as post-

colonialism, historical bonds or traditional forms of writing (which, as shown below, is a key

reason for the employment of British rather than local correspondents) play a major role in the

study of news flows. Cultural studies is concerned with the construction of meaning, i.e. the

structures, processes and practices involved in the production of texts, and "helps explain

generalized images and stereotypes" (Schudson, 2000: 189). Both this and the following

approach are critical in the sense that they study communications and cultural phenomena in a

given social order (Golding and Murdock, 2000).

The `critical political economy' theory takes a neo-Marxist view of society. Even though

economics are not the main issue of this analysis, their wider implications have to be taken

into account. Employing foreign correspondents and subscribing to several news agencies is

expensive and often not value for money, considering the little demand newspapers have for

Latin American news. When news is viewed as `commodity', it is more important that the

`product' is in the interest of the public, than in the `public interest'. In the eyes of media-

mogul Murdoch, "the Third World sells no newspapers" (in Harrison and Palmer, 1986: 77).

News about Latin America might be omitted simply because the British public is believed to

be unconcerned about it. The marginalization of oppositional and alternative voices is,

according to Murdock and Golding, influenced by economic forces, which consolidate "the

position of groups already established in the main mass-media markets and excluding those

groups who lack the capital base required for successful entry. Thus the voices which survive

will largely belong to those least likely to criticize the prevailing distribution of wealth and

power" (in McQuail, 2000: 82). This has to be kept in mind for the analysis of sources, as it

suggests that media preferably rely on information provided by government, business, and

`experts' (as specified by Herman and Chomsky; 1988: 166) rather than on the general public

Details

Seiten
Erscheinungsform: Originalausgabe
Jahr: 2003
ISBN (eBook): 9783832491796
ISBN (Paperback): 9783838691794
Dateigröße: 778 KB
Sprache: Englisch
Institution / Hochschule: University of Central Lancashire – Department of Journalism
Note: 2,0
Schlagworte: news correspondents international nwico agenda

Autor

Annalena Oeffner (Autor:in)