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Friendship Formations of Expatriates in Asia

Focus on European Expatriates in Shanghai and New Delhi

©2005 Masterarbeit 74 Seiten

Zusammenfassung

Inhaltsangabe:Abstract:
The hyper competitive global arena of the twenty-first century requires companies to look for business opportunities beyond their national boarders. With the increased overseas operations there is also a rise in the number of personnel sent for overseas assignments. The increasing number of highly qualified European expatriates in Asian cities is also a manifestation of such activities. However, companies operating abroad report that their global strategy is undermined by expatriates’ failure. These high failure rates, measured by early returns are often connected with the private life of expatriates - the ineffective management of intercultural relations - as experts in this area call it.
Despite the critical role of the expatriates’ private life on the success of their overseas assignments, so far, the subject matter has not received enough attention from social scientists. Therefore, this study attempts to contribute towards bridging the gap by focusing on one part of the expatriates’ private life, which is the ‘friendship’ aspect. The study mainly intends to discuss the friendship formations of European expatriates based in India and China. In particular, this qualitative study highlights the role of various cultural aspects and socio-economic factors on intercultural friendship formations.
The interviews conducted with a sample of European expatriates working in New Delhi and Shanghai demonstrated that European expatriates mainly tend to develop friendships among each other. Further, the results showed that different cultural, social and economic aspects and various external conditions (like the existence of expatriate communities and the living conditions of expatriates) are in many cases major impediments in the development of closer relationships like friendships between European expatriates and host nationals.

Introduction:
Increasing interconnectedness, as one aspect of globalisation has led to a greater variety of possible social relationships. Out of foreign direct investment (FDI) and the move of production from Western countries to developing countries in Asia, Latin America and Africa new forms of labour migration have developed. Nowadays, labour migration is not limited to workers or unemployed individuals from developing countries or countries in transition. Rather, another group of migrants has become more prominent – the expatriates. The group includes highly qualified scientists, managers, […]

Leseprobe

Inhaltsverzeichnis


ID 8861
Schmider, Alexandra: Friendship Formations of Expatriates in Asia -
Focus on European Expatriates in Shanghai and New Delhi
Hamburg: Diplomica GmbH, 2005
Zugl.: Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, MA-Thesis / Master, 2005
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Curriculum Vitae
Personal Information
Name: Alexandra
Schmider
Address:
Bornheimer Landwehr 32
Frankfurt a. Main, Germany
Email: alexandra_schmider@yahoo.de
Date/place of birth:
16
th
August 1975, Rottweil, Germany
Nationality: German
Marital status
Married
Educational Background
April 2003 ­ May 2005
Master of Arts in Social Sciences, Global Studies
Programme, jointly offered by: University of Freiburg
(Germany), University of Kwazulu - Natal (South Africa),
and Jawaharlal Nehru University (New Delhi, India)
Main subjects: globalisation, global governance, cultural
change, research methodology
Master's
Thesis: Friendship Formations of European
Expatriates in Asia, grade: 2, 0 (equivalent to B+)
Oct. 1995 ­ Sept. 1998
Degree of Social Work, University of Cooperative
Education, Heidenheim, grade of thesis: 1, 0 (A+)
Sept. 1986 - June 1995
Abitur, Overall Result: 1, 6 (German scale: 1 (best) to 6),
Latin advanced proficiency exam,
Droste-Hülshoff-Gymnasium, Rottweil
Work Experience and Internships
June 2004 ­ May 2005
Studienkreis Rottweil
Position: Part - time English and German teacher for
children and adults with learning difficulties
August - October 2004
German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and
Development (BMZ), Bonn
Position: Intern at the East African Division

Responsibilities: assisting in preparations of submittals
to the management of the Ministry; updating of the
internal Sudan report; doing research, writing
summaries and overviews on national positions and
political discussions concerning the crisis in Darfur
July ­ August 2004
Observatory for the Development of Social Services in
Europe, Frankfurt/Main
Position: Intern
Responsibilities: Co-editing the documentation of an
international conference (see publications); revision of
texts of a working paper on the need for cooperation
and consultation of social service providers in selected
new EU member countries; research on literature,
events and seminars for the Observatory's Newsletter;
design of the English version of the project's Internet
presentation (www.soziale-dienste-in-europa.de)
Dec. 2001- April 2003
Hegau-Jugendwerk GmbH, Gailingen, hospital for
neurology and rehabilitation for children
Position: Social worker
Responsibilities: offering social and legal counselling for
the families of the patients; organisation of special
support for the patients after their stay; co-operation with
social institutions and other services; developing the
services for the clients; conflict management
Jan. 1999 ­ Dec. 2001 Landratsamt Tuttlingen, youth welfare office
Position: Social worker
Responsibilities: responsible for a local area with 18.000
inhabitants; counselling families concerning various
situations (divorce, problems in education, alcohol or
drug addiction); crime prevention; co-operation with
various institutions (schools, hospitals, law courts, social
institutions); organisation of individual support; leading
and analysing the projects; developing new projects
July 1997 - July 1998 Sozialpädagogisches Institut, Heidenheim
Position: Intern; supervisor of a multicultural group of
children with behaviour and learning problems
Responsibilities: provision of help with school problems;
co-operation with the families; organisation of a summer
camp in Great Britain
Oct. 1996 ­ Jan. 1997 Leonard Cheshire Foundation, Great Britain
Position: Volunteer in a home for disabled people
Responsibilities: social care
Jan. 1996 ­ Oct. 1996 Nursing home, Ballendorf, Germany
Position: Intern
Responsibilities: social and physical care

Training
1999 ­ 2001 Conflict management and mediation
Moderation of meetings
Systemic counselling in social services
Crisis intervention in families
April 1995 - July 1995
German Red Cross, Rottweil
Instruction course for nursing
Personal Skills and Competences
Languages German:
mother
tongue
English: excellent
French: good working knowledge
Italian: good
Computer Skills
Windows, Office; Internet
Additional Information
Publications
Co-editor of the Documentation of the conference on `Social Services of General
Interest in the EU ­ Assessing their Specificities, Potential and Needs', Brussels, 28 -
29 June 2004, organised by the Observatory for the Development of Social Services
in Europe and the Social Platform (Platform of European Social NGOs).
The documentation was published in November 2004 by the Observatory for the
Development of Social Services in Europe, a project financed by the Federal Ministry
for Family Affairs, Senior citizens, Women and Youth (BMFSFJ).
Diploma-thesis (1998) on `Rituals as supporting tools in Social Work for children in
day-care services'. Published in 1998 by DIPLOMICA GmbH, Hamburg; available on:
www.diplomica.de
Voluntary Social Contributions
Since April 2003
Member of UNICEF
Since July 1995
Member of German Red Cross
July 1994
Participant at an international work camp in France
Sept. 1991- August 1994
Leader of a Christian youth club in Rottweil ­ Hausen
Personal Interests
Travelling, literature, sports

Table of Contents
Page
Introduction
1
Chapter One
Background of the Study
3
1.1
Economic Globalisation and Expatriates
3
1.1.1
Increasing Foreign Direct Investment
3
1.1.2
Global Cities
5
1.1.3
Definition of the Term `Expatriate'
6
1.2
Rationale for the Study
8
1.3
Research Questions and Key Assumptions
10
1.4
Contributions and Limitations of the Study
11
1.5
Research Methodology
12
1.5.1
Literature
12
1.5.2
Interview Method
12
1.5.3
Sampling
13
Chapter Two
Theories of Intercultural Friendship
14
2.1
Introduction
14
2.2
The Concept and Complexity of `Culture'
14
2.3
Intercultural Communication
18
2.4
Theories of Friendship
20
2.4.1
Classical Concepts of `Friendship'
20
2.4.2
Modern Perceptions of `Friendship'
21
2.4.3
Theories of Attraction
21
2.4.4
Characteristics of Friendship
22
2.5
Constraints in the Choice of Friendships
24
2.6
Intercultural Friendship Formation
27
2.7
Summary
31
Chapter Three Research Findings and Analysis
32
3.1
Introduction
32
3.2
Research Methodology
32
3.3
Sampling
33
3.4
Interview Results and Analysis
34
3.4.1
Respondents' General Background and Conditions of Assignment
34
3.4.2
Respondents' Leisure Time Activities and Club Memberships
40
3.4.3
Respondents' Social Contacts and Friendships
43
3.4.3
Factors Influencing Intercultural Friendship Formations
52
Chapter Four
Conclusions and Recommendations
58
4.1
Conclusions
58
4.2
Recommendations
59
5.
References
60
6.
Appendix ­ Interview Structure and Questions
65

List of Figures and Tables
Page
Figure 2.1 Factors Influencing Intercultural Friendship Formations 28
Table 3.1 Respondents' Gender and Location 34
Table 3.2 Nationality of Respondents 35
Table 3.3 Respondents' Marital Status and Family Composition 36
Table 3.4 Employment and Positions of Respondents 37
Table 3.5 Respondents' Leisure Time Activities 41
Table 3.6 Respondents' Memberships 42

1
Introduction
Increasing interconnectedness, as one aspect of globalisation has led to a greater variety of
possible social relationships. Out of foreign direct investment (FDI) and the move of
production from Western countries to developing countries in Asia, Latin America and Africa
new forms of labour migration have developed. Nowadays, labour migration is not limited to
workers or unemployed individuals from developing countries or countries in transition.
Rather, another group of migrants has become more prominent ­ the expatriates. The group
includes highly qualified scientists, managers, employees of development organisations,
teaching personnel and other professionals from industrialised countries. In addition to
personal career motivations, such moves are also undertaken by necessity, as companies
themselves send engineers, marketing specialists and other personnel abroad with the clear
goals to establish a branch or to introduce new products.
On the top of the direct work related challenges, expatriates also face personal and social
challenges associated with the place of their foreign assignments. As many studies have
indicated, expatriates' high failure rates measured by early returns and therefore rising costs
for the sending companies are closely linked to difficulties in the integration of expatriates
and their families (Grant-Vallone and Ensher, 2001, p. 264).
The resulting question is how
expatriates manage their private social relations and how they establish social networks.
Friendship aspects are among the major manifestations of social relationships; hence, another
important question is what type of friendships expatriates tend to develop in their places of
foreign assignment.
In the last decade, research on expatriates has increased. However, most of the studies are
focused on: expatriates' work performance (Kealey and Protheroe, 1996), expatriates' training
for cultural sensitivity, leadership performance in a multicultural environment (Deresky,
2002; Braasch, 2000) and on expatriates' intercultural adjustment processes (Van
Oudenhoven, 2001). On the other hand, the private life of expatriates has largely been
neglected resulting in an obvious research gap. So far, there is a limited knowledge on the
development of private social relations of expatriates during their foreign assignments. The
major purpose of this particular study is, to join the ongoing efforts to fill that research gap by
focusing on the aspects of intercultural friendship formation of European expatriates in India
and China.

2
This Master's thesis comprises four chapters. Chapter one provides a brief introduction to the
issue of economic globalisation with particular focus on the rise of FDI in Asia and the related
increase in foreign assignments. Further, the term `expatriate' is analysed and distinguished
from other types of migrants or groups of people on the move. This chapter also outlines the
rationale for the study, the researcher's key assumptions, the study's contributions and
limitations as well as the research methodology and sampling.
Chapter two deals with the literature on `intercultural friendship'. The discussion begins with
the concepts of `culture', `intercultural communication' and the classical and modern concept
of `friendship'. Further, the theories on `intercultural friendship formation' are presented. In
particular, the model developed by Elisabeth Gareis (1995) on her qualitative study on
intercultural friendships is elaborated.
Chapter three presents findings of the actual research done on expatriates currently living in
Shanghai and New Delhi. The results of the conducted qualitative interviews are presented to
demonstrate friendship aspects of the interviewed expatriates, which they have developed
during their stay in the foreign assignment. Specifically, the findings highlight how cultural
and socio-economic aspects determine these friendship formations.
The final chapter deals with the conclusion drawn on the circumstances and possibilities of
friendship formations of expatriates in Asian cities.

3
Chapter One - Background of the Study
1.1 Economic Globalisation and Expatriates
A visible effect of economic globalisation is that multinational companies (MNCs) and
transnational companies (TNCs) have gained power. `Global giants' like Nestlé and Phillip
Morris dominate the market. "Multinational corporations account for at least 20 per cent of
world production and 70 per cent of world trade" (Held et al., 2001, p. 46). Western
companies are spreading all over the world by lifting the production out of locality into
globality. Production is cheaper in developing countries, where costs of labour, materials, real
estate and taxes are just a small percentage of those in developed countries. Van Dijk regards
the `decentralisation of production' and the `centralisation of capital and control' as important
elements in global network developments. According to Van Dijk (1999), not only the
reduction of labour costs, but also `geographical restraints' in the centralised production site
"led to high costs of establishment, traffic congestion and other problems with regard to
transportation" (p. 53). Decentralisation is a solution to escape increasing costs of production,
geographical and sometimes legal restraints.
For the establishment of a division or subdivision of a company, the management of a
corporation usually sends highly qualified members of its staff abroad. These persons have
the mission to build up a well-functioning branch according to the company's plan and within
a given period. What are the expectations on how these movements of highly qualified labour
forces will develop in the near future? Steffen Braasch (2000) concludes in his research done
on expatriates in India that this flow of highly qualified people will grow larger if the flows of
FDI continue to increase (p.7).
1.1.1 Increasing Foreign Direct Investment
In January and February 2004, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD) conducted a survey of international FDI location experts in cooperation with the
editorial staff of Corporate Location. The Global Investments Prospects Assessment (GIPA)
2004 of UNCTAD reported:

4
"The large majority of location experts are optimistic about the prospects for FDI. Roughly,
four out of five experts surveyed believe that FDI prospects will improve, not just in the short
term (2004-2005) but also in the medium term (2006-2007) [...]. The survey results suggest
that experts are on balance slightly more optimistic about the medium term, as the percentage
of respondents predicting worsened prospects for the period 2006 - 2007 are somewhat lower
than that for 2004-2005"(www.unctad.org).
According to this survey, China, followed by India, is considered as the most attractive
location for FDI. In the study, these two largest Asian countries are called `the hot spots for
FDI'. Of further interest, the economies of Asian countries have the most balanced profile
among regions, implying the expectation that these regions attract FDI in all the different
corporate functions and are less likely to be limited on few specific sectors.
Combining the above­mentioned expectations concerning the increase of FDI in China and
India with S. Braasch's statement that the flow of expatriates will grow larger if FDI
increases, we can assume that the coming years will provide China and India with additional
expatriates, and thus underlines the importance of this study.
More expatriates will not make a big difference - if any - for the Indian and the Chinese
society of each more than one billion of people, but it will definitely make a difference for the
expatriates, their families and their social lives. Thinking of the location of foreign companies
in or nearby big cities like Shanghai or New Delhi, we can pose the question if there will
develop a particular density of expatriates in these cities, which will form into a specific
community. How will the expatriates' relationships with each other develop? Will these
expatriates manage to become integrated in the local society? How will their individual
personal relations with host nationals develop?
Further developments cannot be predicted with any certainty now, but a rough
characterisation of the current situation, with suggestions of possible future development can
be achieved by analysing the current friendship situation of expatriates in Asian cities like
New Delhi and Shanghai. To approach the expatriates' social lives from their geographical
location, the characteristic of these `global cities' (Sassen, 1988) will shortly be described in
the coming paragraph.

5
1.1.2 Global Cities
Reflecting on the location of expatriates, it is important to provide some ideas about the
importance of big cities for the life of expatriates. Saskia Sassen (1988), the expert on `global
cities' had a specific perception of the role of major cities in the global economy. She saw a
"strong tendency [for the] internationalisation of finance, manufacturing, and clerical
activities" to be located in the big cities and even described these locations as "strategic nodes
in the organisation of the world economy" (p.187). The biggest cities - very often also
national capitals - provide good infrastructure like efficient transportation to airports and
seaports and good railway networks. Further, administration may be simpler because many
major offices and institutions are located in these cities. Finally, in developing countries, the
living standard in big cities is higher than in smaller towns, and so, daily life is more
convenient for expatriates.
New Delhi and Shanghai are considered by the researcher as candidates for the `global city
membership' because both have become strategic points in the Asian and international
markets. The increasing FDI in India and China will mainly bring companies to these cities,
which have been improving their infrastructure over the last years. Recent news is India's
intention to build a new international airport in Delhi. Shanghai, on the other hand, is a
strategically well placed, mainly because of its seaside location. The German-built `Maglev',
the world's fastest train connects the booming city with the capital Beijing creating a high
efficient transportation network.
These `global cities' are central places of working and living for expatriates and therefore the
major locations in global networks of trade, finance and production. Concerning the
importance of such global cities J.V. Beaverstock (2001) explained:
"The existence of nomadic, highly-mobile and affluent transnational elites in the corporate
segments of the service economy are not only a part of the space of flows, but their
cosmopolitan working, cultural and social practices are highly spatialised and embedded in
the network of global cities" (p.87).
The location of expatriates in global cities is one consequence of the globalisation of
production. The question is how this particular group of migrants distinguishes itself from
other flows of people on the move.

6
1.1.3 Definition of the Term `Expatriate'
The term `expatriate' originated from the Latin `ex patria'. The English translation derivative
means `out of the fatherland' or `out of the native country'. Firstly, an `expatriate' is a person
who has left his or her home country.
The use of the term `expatriate' is nowadays much broader than it was before the Second
World War. According to Cohen (1977), at this time, the term "referred to a person who was
driven away or banished from his native country, or one who withdrew or renounced his
allegiance to it"(p.7).
Nowadays, banishments are not common any more and expatriates have generally left their
home countries out of free will. Cohen (1977) defines the modern `expatriate' as it follows:
"The term `expatriate' will here be used to refer to those voluntary temporary migrants,
mostly from affluent countries, who reside abroad for one or several of the following
purposes:
1. Business ­ private entrepreneurs, representatives, managers and employees of foreign and
multinational firms, foreign employees of local firms, professionals practising abroad.
2. Mission ­ diplomatic and other governmental representatives, foreign aid personnel,
representatives of foreign non - profit - making organisations, military stationed abroad,
missionaries
3. Teaching, research and culture academics, scientists (e.g. archaeologists, anthropologists,
etc.) and artists.
4. Leisure ­ owners of second homes abroad, the wealthy, the retired living abroad and other
`permanent tourists', bohemians and drop-outs" (p.6).
One can discuss the question if foreign students can be regarded as expatriates. Due to their
special positions as young people who are not yet professionals and who are not sent to the
foreign country by a company, a church or any other organisation, they are exceptional.
Further, foreign students in Asian countries differ from expatriates by their lifestyle, because
they live mainly on campus and have no income. Additionally, on campus, students have
different possibilities of developing social relations. In this sense, students are therefore not
considered as expatriates.

7
Further, expatriates are a group of migrants mainly distinct from other labour migrants by
their high professional skills, by the fact that expatriates are already employed when they
enter the host countries and possess a legal status like residence and work permits.
Expatriates are not always clearly distinguishable from tourists because expatriates
themselves often use leisure time and holidays to be `tourists' in their country of temporary
residence. Thus, as `temporary', they do not appear to be much different from other tourists.
Due to their high or even very high incomes, expatriates can afford to live parts of their lives
abroad as tourists. However, they have to be distinguished from tourists because of their semi-
permanent residence.
Generally, expatriates can further be considered as a much-advantaged foreign minority with
the highest status immigrants can achieve after the end of colonialism. Cohen (1977)
concluded:
"Expatriates, then, could be viewed as a transient, privileged minority ­ in many respects as
`inverted minority' ­ which gains status by its entrance into the host society and hence tends
to defend the exclusiveness of its enclave and its institutions from the hosts; whereas other,
lower-status minorities often have to struggle to preserve their right to seclusiveness from the
hostility of the host society" (p.24).
The question is how this high status was achieved. One reason can be a relic of the times of
colonialism when the Europeans ruled large areas of Asia, Africa and other regions. The
dominance and wealth of the `white people' seems to have remained in the memories of the
indigenous people and therefore Western expatriates are generally attributed a high social
status. So is it still the case that a European woman is addressed as `Madam' by the majority
of Indians. Although much has changed, the second reason for the high status of Western
expatriates is the economic power of the West; in some cases, this economic power could be
considered as a new form of colonialism. Cohen (1977) stated that: "the average income of
expatriates is much higher than that of the local population" (p.20). This enables the
sojourners to live a life similar to colonial masters with `housemaids', drivers, eating out and
being able to buy more things than they could afford in their home countries.

8
Some authors even call expatriates `transnational elites' (Beaverstock, 2002). The term
`transnational' refers here to the non-permanent, transient residence, the encounters of
different nationalities and the dynamic process of the group.
Beside the term `expatriate', the term `sojourner' is used in literature for the same group of
people. (Hullett and Witte, 2001). A sojourner is also somebody who stays in a foreign
environment for a limited time-period, having the status of a `traveller' (Richards, 1996) or a
`visitor'. As Richards (1996) mentioned: "Sojourners are distinguished from migrants and
refugees on the one hand and tourists on the other, depending on the length of their stay and
their motives for geographic movement" (p. 554).
Among other authors, Briody and Beeber Chrisman (1991) use the term `International Service
Personnel' (ISP) instead of `expatriates'.
If we summarize the indicators for the term `expatriates', we can conclude: The term
`expatriates' refers to foreign nationals distinguished from other foreign minorities by the
duration of their stays (longer than tourists, but not permanent like immigrants), by their legal
entry position in form of residence and work permits (different from refugees or illegal
immigrants), by possession of a work contract, and finally by their high status due to their
high job positions and incomes. However, this apparently clear definition is a constructed and
artificial one as the historical development of the term (from a `banished' person) and the
current different usage of it demonstrates. The modern expatriate communities include for
example, also the present family members of the expatriate. The self-definition of
accompanying partners supports this: they consider themselves also as `expatriates'.
1.2 Rationale for the Study
The correlation between the increasing trends in FDI and the rise in foreign assignments give
adequate reason for focusing attention on various expatriate issues. Elisa J. Grant-Vallone and
Ellen A. Ensher (2001, p.262) considered the globalisation of workforce as one of the most
significant trends that will affect workers in the next century.
The overwhelming part of research done on expatriates exclusively focused on business issues
like the work performance of expatriates, the financial gains and losses of companies through

9
increased foreign assignments (Deresky, 2002), on (culture-specific) preparation and training
for expatriates (Kealey and Protheroe, 1996) or on leadership functions in specific cultures
(Braasch, 2000).
Authors like Briody and Chrisman (1991), Deresky (2002) and Kealey and. Protheroe (1996)
are among those who mentioned general concerns about the effectiveness of employees living
in a foreign culture. Kealey and Protheroe (1996) report: "Failure rates, as measured by early
returns, are about 15 - 40 percent for American business personnel and of those who stay, less
than 50 percent perform adequately"(p.143).Considering the costs of such failure rates, it is
important to focus on the reasons for these high failure rates. Many studies see these reasons
in the personal life and work conflict (Grant-Vallone and Ensher, 2001). The expatriate and
his or her family settle down in a foreign environment where new challenges for the family as
a whole and for the relationships within the family arise. In addition to this situation, the
expatriate has to face a different working environment where he/she is often supposed to play
a new role, which he/she has not played before: many expatriates become first time managers
and perform leadership functions. The demands in both life-areas, public and private are at the
same time very high.
Generally, it is observable that the issue of private life has so far mainly been neglected in
research on expatriates. However, as already mentioned, it is assumed that the private life of
an expatriate is directly affecting the working life of the expatriate and therefore the success
or failure of the assignment. Consequently, this gap in research should be addressed.
Another rationale for the choice of this topic lies in the personal contacts of the researcher to
expatriates during her studies in New Delhi. The researcher got to know several expatriate
associations and met various expatriates ranging from embassy personnel, to teachers and to
employees of development organisations and companies. The observations and impressions
gained during this time increased the interest in the issue of expatriates' friendships.

10
1.3 Research Question and Key Assumptions
The underlying key research question of this study is the following:
How doe cultural aspects and socio-economic conditions determine the type of friendship
European expatriates in Asia tend to develop during their assignments?
The key research question can be broken down in these sub questions:
- Do expatriates generally form friendships during their time of assignment?
- What type of friendship do India and China based European expatriates develop during
their foreign assignment?
- What brought these friends together? (work place, similarities, interest, place of living,
membership of a club...)
- Which cultural aspects and socio-economic conditions were decisive in the
development of the friendships? (language, financial situation, educational level,
traditions, living conditions, duration of stay...)
- Is it is easier for expatriates to develop friendships mainly with other expatriates of the
same or a similar cultural background? If so, what is hindering them to develop
friendships with locals or other expatriates with different cultural background?
In the study, the researcher used the sub-questions as spring boards to approach the major
research question. The interview structure is therefore built up to include the general as well
as the specific issues.
The researcher's first assumption is that although expatriates are considered to have high
intercultural competences, it is more likely that European expatriates in Asia develop
friendships with other expatriates coming from a similar cultural background than with locals
or other expatriates coming from different cultural regions. A higher degree of cultural
affinity and stronger similarities in social and economic conditions between two individuals
make the development of friendships easier. Culture and socio-economic aspects not only
determine life style, but also personal interests and values.

Details

Seiten
Erscheinungsform
Originalausgabe
Jahr
2005
ISBN (eBook)
9783832488611
ISBN (Paperback)
9783838688619
DOI
10.3239/9783832488611
Dateigröße
450 KB
Sprache
Englisch
Institution / Hochschule
Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg – Philosophische Fakultät
Erscheinungsdatum
2005 (Juli)
Note
2,0
Schlagworte
globalization foreign direct investment international intercultural
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Titel: Friendship Formations of Expatriates in Asia
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74 Seiten
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