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Cultural Differences

A Barrier to Overcome the Singaporean Culture and its Characteristics

©2000 Diplomarbeit 119 Seiten

Zusammenfassung

Abstract:
This thesis handles a topic which is of high importance for all companies doing business internationally . But nevertheless there are still less companies who make this a subject of everydaylife. What I am talking about is culture, cultural differences and cross cultural management.
What makes it so difficult for people of different cultures to communicate, to work together, to live side by side in harmony without misunderstanding ? It is our culture and the difference between our cultures often mentioned not at all. But at the latest if there appear problems you will recognize the differences in understanding, thinking, behavior, ... This thesis should make a small contribution to get a better understanding that culture is something we must accept and that we can not neglect if we are doing business internationally. There is a short overview with demographical and economical data of the last thirty years of both countries. It continues with the main topic - the cultural dimension (theoretical background followed by some models of identifying different cultures, the cultural profiles of both countries, the Singaporean culture and its characteristics, behavior and problems as expatriate in Singapore, do's and don'ts. After this I explain the theory on a concrete example : a Business Reengeneering project realized in both countreis (Singapore and Austria) on which I have collaborated for altogether eleven months. At last I answer the question how culture influences the business culture, the implementation of Business Process Reengineering and the Management of Change. With a critical outlook concerning this topic I want to round off the thesis.

Kurze Inhaltsbeschreibung :
In der Arbeit wurden von mir Vorgangsweisen, Erfolgsfaktoren und Ergebnisse von Reenginering Prozessen vor dem Hintergrund zweier unterschiedlicher gesellschaftlicher Kulturen beschrieben und problematisiert. Bei den beiden Vergleichskulturen handelt es sich um die von Österreich und Singapur. Die Reengineering Projekte fanden dabei im gleichen global agierenden Unternehmen statt. Die empirische Arbeitsbasis war durch zwei Praktika innerhalb dieser Firma gegeben.
Die Arbeit teilt sich sowohl in einen rein theoretischen Teil und eine praktischen Teil. Es wird erklärt worauf bei internationalen, interkulturellen Arbeiten und Projekten geachtet werden, wie sich Kultur auf Business Reengineering auswirkt und worauf ich in meinem Projekt achten musste.

Leseprobe

Inhaltsverzeichnis


ID 4457
Janach, Sabine: Cultural Differences - A Barrier to Overcome the Singaporean Culture
and its Characteristics
Hamburg: Diplomica GmbH, 2001
Zugl.: Universität Klagenfurt, Diplomarbeit, 2000
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CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
2
CONTENTS ... 3
PREFACE ... 7
1. INTRODUCTION... 5
2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ... 5
2.1. Singapore ... 6
2.1.1. Demographical Structure ... 6
2.1.2. Economical Facts ... 7
2.2. Austria ... 11
2.2.1. Demographical Structure ... 11
2.2.2. Economical Facts ... 11
3. THE CULTURAL DIMENSION... 14
3.1. Theoretical Background... 14
3.1.1. What Is Culture ? ... 14
3.1.2. Models to Classify Cultures... 21
3.1.2.1. The Four Dimensions of Hofstede... 21
3.1.2.2. The Three Dimensions of Adler ... 26
3.1.2.3. The Model of Key Cultural Orientations... 29
3.1.3. Cultural Profiles of Singapore and Austria... 40
3.1.3.1. Singapore... 40
3.1.3.2. Austria ... 41
3.1.3.3. Comparison of the Two Profiles... 42
3.1.4. Cultural Competence... 45
3.2. The Singaporean Culture and its Characteristics ... 47
3.2.1. Singaporean Chinese Culture... 48
3.2.1.1. Face ... 48
3.2.1.2. Kia Su ... 49
3.2.1.3. Gestures of Politeness ... 50
3.2.1.4. Offensive and Obscene Gestures ... 51
3.2.1.5. Relationship ... 51
3.2.1.6. Chinese and Doing Business ... 52
3.2.1.7. Image Goes Beyond All ... 53
3.2.1.8. Communication ... 53
3.2.1.9. Problems of Being Chinese with Western Orientation... 54
3.2.1.10.Tolerance of Other Cultures... 55
3.2.1.11.The Language ... 56
3.2.2. Behavior as Expatriate in Singapore... 57
3.2.3. Problems of Expatriates in Singapore... 57
3.2.3.1. Culture Shock ... 57
3.2.3.2. Politeness... 59
3.2.3.3. Frankness ... 59
3.2.3.4. Tolerance ... 60

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
3
3.2.3.5. Food... 60
3.2.3.6. Homesickness... 62
3.2.4. Do's and Don'ts ... 63
3.2.4.1. Rules of Behavior in Private Sphere ... 63
3.2.4.2. Rules of Behavior in Business Life... 67
4. THE CONCRETE EXAMPLE ... 69
4.1. The Theoretical Background ... 69
4.1.1. What Is Business Process Reengineering ? ... 70
4.1.1.1. Definition of Process ... 71
4.1.1.2. Definition of BPR... 73
4.1.2. Ten Key Factors for Success of BPR... 74
4.1.3. What BPR Is Not ... 76
4.1.4. Implementation of Business Process Reengineering ... 76
4.1.5. Ten Stumbling Blocks... 77
4.2. The BPR ­ Projects ... 78
4.2.1. Project Description... 79
4.2.1.1. Project Origin... 79
4.2.1.2. Project Team ... 80
4.2.1.3. Way of Action ... 82
4.2.2. Implementation of BPR... 84
4.2.2.1. The EDP-Tools ... 84
4.2.2.2. Method of Process Listing ... 85
4.2.2.3. Method of Data Collecting and Storage... 87
4.2.2.4. Analysis and Evaluation of Data... 88
4.3. BPR and Change... 88
4.3.1. What is Change ? ... 88
4.3.1.1. Definition of Change ... 89
4.3.1.2. The Main Facts of Change ... 89
4.3.1.3. The Impact of Change ... 92
4.3.2. Management of Change ... 95
4.3.2.1. Definition of Management of Change ... 95
4.3.2.2. The Change Master ... 96
4.3.2.3. BPR and Management of Change ... 97
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 99
5.1. Different Culture ­ Different Business Conditions ... 99
5.2. Different Culture ­ Different Implementation of BPR and MOC ... 101
6. CREATIVE OUTLOOK...105
6.1. In General... 106
6.2. Concerning the BPR ­ Project... 109
6.3. The Main Fact of Cultural Interaction... 109
A. REFERENCES ... 112
B. ABBREVIATIONS ... 115
C. APPENDIX ... 116

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
4
PREFACE
Let me give you an insight how it occurred to me to write a thesis about this topic and why I
decided to go to Singapore.
The basic reason was the desire to write something about a theme with a practical background
instead of writing about an only theoretical topic. In one breath there was the thought to do a
foreign semester. Therefore the opportunity presents itself to combine these two ideas.
The first step was to select a country. Because I have already worked five months in a global
company in Austria - I was there during my internship ­ there was the decision to try to get a job at
the same company but at a location in another country to have a suitable basis to work out a cross
cultural comparison. Because within Europe the cultural differences were not very serious I have
tried to choose well and decided to write the thesis in Singapore.
This thesis I dedicate to Peter and my family who have supported me mental during
my stay at Singapore in a really marvelous way.
THANK YOU !

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
5
1.
INTRODUCTION
This thesis handles a topic which is of high importance for all companies doing business
internationally . But nevertheless there are still less companies who make this a subject of everyday
life. What I am talking about is culture, cultural differences and cross cultural management.
What makes it so difficult for people of different cultures to communicate, to work together, to live
side by side in harmony without misunderstanding ? It is our culture and the difference between our
cultures often mentioned not at all. But at the latest if there appear problems you will recognize the
differences in understanding, thinking, behavior, ...
This thesis should make a small contribution to get a better understanding that culture is something
we must accept and that we can not neglect if we are doing business internationally.
To broaden the background knowledge of the reader chapter 2 gives a short overview with
demographical and economical data of the last thirty years of both countries. In chapter 3 I continue
with the main topic ­ the cultural dimension (theoretical background followed by some models of
identifying different cultures, the cultural profiles of both countries, the Singaporean culture and its
characteristics, behavior and problems as expatriate in Singapore, do's and don'ts. Chapter 4 shows
then a concrete example. It starts with the theoretical background concerning Business Process
Reengineering followed by the detailed description of the projects in Singapore and Austria on
which I have collaborated for altogether eleven months.. The chapter ends with the topic Business
Process Reengineering and change or Management of Change (MOC) respectively. Last but not
least chapter 5 which deals with the question how culture influences the business culture, the
implementation of Business Process Reengineering and the Management of Change. With a critical
outlook concerning this topic I want to round off the thesis.
2.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The economical facts of the countries shows us the first considerable difference between the tiny
island city state Singapore, trying to be the center of Asia, and the heart of Europe, the small state
Austria.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
6
2.1.
Singapore
In this chapter there will be given an economical as well as demographical overall view of
Singapore.
2.1.1.
Demographical Structure
Singapore is one of the economical very important countries within the Asian economy. It is built
on a originally much smaller island surrounded by the Indian and Pacific Ocean. In all the years the
government spared no effort to enlarge the island artificially, to create beaches, areas in the
immediate vicinity of a big city, ... to bring tourism to Singapore.
Population
2,769 million inhabitants
Population density
5.818 inhabitants / km
2
up to 20.000 inhabitants / km
2
in the center
Area
626 km
2
Nations
77 % Chinese
14 % Malaysian
7 % Indian, Pakistani
2 % Eurasian, Armenian, Arabian, Vietnamese
Languages
English, Chinese (Mandarin), Malay, Tamil
Religions
54 % Buddhism, Taoism
15 % Islam
13 % Christianity
18 % Hinduism and other religions
Fig. 1 : Demographical facts of Singapore
1
As shown in figure 1 the Chinese dominance in Singapore is very serious. More than two thirds of
the population are Chinese. The other third are 14% Malaysian and 9% Indians and other
minorities. Caused by the strong Chinese presence the majority of people belong to the Buddhist
and Taoist belief. The Malaysian part of the population is Islamic.
1
source : Microsoft LexiRom [1998] (translation from German into English)

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
7
Roger Axtell describes the two religions - Buddhism and Taoism - with the following words
2
:
Buddhism
" Buddhism is the thought and practice associated with shakyamuni, the Buddha who lived in India
in the 6
th
and 5
th
centuries B.C. Buddhist thinking does not center around a person, but rather
focuses on the idea of teaching. The core of the Buddhist philosophy, or the Four Noble Truths, is
the knowledge of suffering, the origin of suffering, the destruction of suffering, and how to
extinguish suffering. There is a distinct emphasis on suffering and pain that is strongly linked to
healing."
Taoism
" A predominantly Asian religion, the aim of Taoism is to achieve harmony with all that is, by
pursuing inaction and effortlessness. There is a quest for freedom as the Taoist turns away from
society to the contemplation of nature, seeking fulfillment in the spontaneous and ,,trans-ethical".
The ultimate goal of the Taoist is to become immortal."
2.1.2.
Economical Facts
The following graphics show figures like GNP, unemployment rate, export, ... to demonstrate how
the Singaporean economy developed.
2
Roger Axtell : The Do's and Taboos of Hosting International Visitors [1990], p.204

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
8
year
GNP
GNP per capita
(US$ billion)
(US$)
1970
1,894.20
913.10
1980
11,296.70
4,642.50
1988
24,816.80
8,795.60
1989
28,887.90
9,953.80
1990
35,258.00
11,949.00
Fig. 2 : GNP and GNP per capita (in US$) from 1970 to 1990
3
With 861% increase of the GNP from 1970 to 1980 (approximately 95% p.a.) a big upswing takes
place in Singapore.
year
1970
1980
1988
1989
1990
employed ('000 persons)
644.20
1,073.40 1,238.50
1,277.30
1,324.70
unemployment rate (in %)
6.00%
3.00%
3.30%
2.20%
1.70%
Fig. 3 : Changes in employment structure and unemployment from 1970 to 1990
4
3
source : Ministry of Trade and Industry, Republic of Singapore [1991] in: Wilkinson B., Labour and Industry in the Asia-Pacific [1994], p.42
4
source : Ministry of Trade and Industry, Republic of Singapore [1991] in: Wilkinson B., Labour and Industry in the Asia-Pacific [1994], p.43
1990
1980
1989
1988
1970
1,894.20
913.10
11,296.70
24,816.80
8,795.60
28,887.90
9,953.80
35,258.00
4,642.50
11,949.00
(US$ billion)
GNP
(US$)
GNP per capita
EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURE
1 . 0 7 3 , 4 0
6 4 4 , 2 0
1 . 3 2 4 , 7 0
1 . 2 3 8 , 5 0
1 . 2 7 7 , 3 0
400,00
600,00
800,00
1.000,00
1.200,00
1.400,00
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
years
persons ( ' 000)
UMEMPLOYMENT RATE
1 , 7 0 %
2 , 2 0 %
3 , 0 0 %
6 %
3 , 3 0 %
0 , 0 0 %
1 , 0 0 %
2 , 0 0 %
3 , 0 0 %
4 , 0 0 %
5 , 0 0 %
6 , 0 0 %
7 , 0 0 %
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
years
percent

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
9
During the last twenty years the number of employed people increases from 644,000.00 to
1,324,700.00, i.e. the number has doubled, while the rate of unemployment has sunken continuously
(see figure 3).
year
domestic
re-exports
imports
balance
exports
1980
12,051.70
7,307.60
23,979.50
-4,620.20
1988
24,624.90
14,657.20
43,841.50
-4,559.40
1989
28,329.80
16,338.40
49,666.10
-4,997.90
1990
34,623.00
17,904.40
60,582.50
-8,055.10
Fig. 4 : Exports and Imports of Singapore (in US$) from 1980 to 1990
5
From 1980 to 1990 the number of domestic exports has doubled as well (see figure 4). From 1980
to 1990 the export structure of Singapore changed a lot (see figure 5). The export of fuels and
minerals decreased 50%. But on the other hand the percentage of exported machines for offices
increased from 1% to 15.9% and the re-exports increased from 15.8% to 23.1%. So as you can see
the technical sector gained ground.
5
source : Ministry of Trade and Industry, Republic of Singapore [1991] in: Wilkinson B., Labour and Industry in the Asia-Pacific [1994], p.44
E X P O R T S & I M P O R T S
34,623.00
28,329.80
24,624.90
12,051.70
17,904.40
16,338.40
14,657.20
7,307.60
60,582.50
23,979.50
43,841.50
49,666.10
-8,055.10
-4,997.90
-4,559.40
-4,620.20
-20,000.00
-10,000.00
0 . 0 0
10,000.00
20,000.00
30,000.00
40,000.00
50,000.00
60,000.00
70,000.00
1980
1988
1989
1990
years
U S $ m i l l i o n
domestic exports
re-exports
imports
balance

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
10
year
food
mineral
chemicals
office
clothing
other
re-exports
beverages
fuels
plastics
machines
domestic
tobacco
exports
1980
2.7%
55.0%
2.2%
1.0%
2.9%
20.4%
15.8%
1988
2.3%
22.9%
6.3%
19.6%
3.6%
26.7%
18.6%
1989
2.5%
23.9%
6.1%
17.8%
3.3%
25.1%
21.3%
1990
2.1%
27.3%
5.8%
15.9%
2.9%
22.9%
23.1%
Fig. 5 : Development of the export structure of Singapore from 1980 to 1990
6
Singapore nowadays is confronted with some problems. On the one hand Singapore is very
dependent on the United States concerning exports (approximately 25% of exports go to the US)
and on the other hand Singapore once a single big shopping metropolis, a cute-price country
concerning electronical and high-tech products as well as gold and clothing caught up with western
prices in most of the sectors or has negligible lower prices. Therefore the lure of buying is infinitely
small. Besides this Singapore, the Silicon Island, has also a problem because the market which is
supplied at this sector is already saturated. Concerning the natural resource water Singapore is
strongly dependent from
6
source : Ministry of Trade and Industry, Republic of Singapore [1991] in: Wilkinson B., Labour and Industry in the Asia-Pacific [1994], p.45
Exports 1980
2 . 7 %
5 5 . 0 %
2 0 . 4 %
1 5 . 8 %
2 . 2 %
1.0%
2 . 9 %
tobacco
beverages
food
fuels
mineral
plastics
chemicals
machines
office
clothing
exports
domestic
other
re-exports
Exports 1988
2 2 . 9
%
6 . 3 %
1 9 . 6 %
3 . 6 %
2 6 . 7 %
1 8 . 6 %
2 . 3 %
Exports 1989
2 . 5 %
2 3 . 9
%
6.1%
1 7 . 8 %
3 . 3 %
25.1%
2 1 . 3 %
Exports 1990
2.1%
2 7 . 3
%
5 . 8 %
15.9
%
2 . 9 %
2 2 . 9
%
2 3 . 1
%

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
11
Malaysia, from where Singapore buys its water. Singapore would not be able to cover the water
consumption by itself.
2.2.
Austria
In this chapter there will be given an overlook about the economy and the demographical structure
of Austria, the tiny heart of Europe.
2.2.1.
Demographical Structure
Referring to the number of nations living in Austria the demographical structure is relatively
homogeneous. Most of the minorities live in the frontier areas of the ,,Bundesland" Kärnten,
Burgenland and Steiermark.
Population
7,776 million inhabitants
Population density
93 inhabitants / km
2
Area
83.853 km
2
Nations
98 % Austrian
2 % Slovenian, Hungarian, Czech, Croatian
Languages
German
Religions
Christianity (Catholics & Protestants)
Fig. 6 : Demographical facts of Austria
7
2.2.2.
Economical Facts
The following graphics show figures like employment, unemployment rate, export and import, ... to
demonstrate how the Austrian economy developed.
7
source : Microsoft Lexirom [1998] (translation from German into English)

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
12
year
employed
men
women
in 1.000
in 1.000
in 1.000
1960
2.281,90
1.465,90
816,00
1970
2.389,20
1.506,90
882,30
1980
2.788,70
1.672,20
1.116,60
1990
2.928,70
1.718,80
1.209,90
Fig. 7 : Development of the employment in Austria from 1960 to 1990
8
Whereas from 1970 to 1980 the unemployment rate was relatively low (1,9%) the unemployment
rate increased from 1980 to 1990 continuously up to a level of 5,4%. 1998 the unemployment rate
come to 7,2%. For the years 1999 and 2000 the prognosticated unemployment rate amount to 6,8
and 6,6%.
8
source : Österreichisches Statistisches Zentralamt, Allgemeiner Auskunftsdienst [1999], www.oestat.gv.at
number of employed femal persons
number of employed male persons
total number of employed persons
Employment
2.281,90
2.389,20
2.788,70
2.928,70
1.718,80
1.672,20
1.506,90
1.465,90
816,00
882,30
1.116,60
1.209,90
1960
1970
1980
1990
years
persons in 1.000

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
13
year
unemployment rate in %
1960
3,40
1970
1,90
1980
1,90
1990
5,40
Fig. 8 : Development of the unemployment rate in Austria from 1960 to 1990
9
year
import
export
difference
difference *
in million ATS
in million ATS
in million ATS
in %
1960
36.813,00
29.129,00
7.684,00
26,37
1970
92.265,00
74.272,00
17.993,00
24,22
1980
315.846,00
226.169,00
89.677,00
39,65
1990
556.234,00
466.067,00
90.167,00
19,34
* percents of export necessary to keep the balance between import and export
Fig. 9 : Development of the export and import volume in Austria from 1960 to 1990
10
9
source : Österreichisches Statistisches Zentralamt, Allgemeiner Auskunftsdienst [1999], www.oestat.gv.at
10
source : Österreichisches Statistisches Zentralamt, Allgemeiner Auskunftsdienst [1999], www.oestat.gv.at
Unemployment Rate
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
3,00
3,50
4,00
4,50
5,00
5,50
6,00
1960
1970
1980
1990
years
percent
Export - Import
226.169,00
556.234,00
92.265,00
315.846,00
36.813,00
29.129,00
74.272,00
466.067,00
7.684,00
17.993,00
89.677,00
90.167,00
-
100.000,00
200.000,00
300.000,00
400.000,00
500.000,00
600.000,00
1960
1970
1980
1990
years
ATS in million

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
14
From 1960 to 1990 the number of the exports and imports has increased approximately sixteen
times (see figure 9). From 1980 to 1990 the difference between the amount of exports and imports
remained at a constant level. In Austria the agricultural sector plays a big role in the economy. On
the sector of trade, consulting and service the small and middle enterprises are a factor of high
importance.
3.
THE CULTURAL DIMENSION
After a short introduction into the world of theory (3.1.) details about the BPR ­ projects at the two
locations of the company will be shown. The following two chapters (3.2., 3.3.) will deal with the
details about the BPR-projects at the company and the comparison of two countries differing on the
economical as well as on the cultural level. It should be demonstrated how cultural differences can
have an impact on project planning, type of project team, carrying out a project. The whole
comparison is based on BPR projects done at the company in Austria as well as at the same
company in Singapore.
3.1.
Theoretical Background
To make the topic familiar to the reader this chapter starts with a theoretical part : What is culture ?
Is there an impact of culture on doing business and if yes how does this impact looks like ? What
are the main differences between cultures ? What can we do to sharpen our cultural eye ? All these
basic questions will be answered before starting with the main theme of the thesis.
3.1.1.
What Is Culture ?
Culture is something usual for us. We have it, we do not think about it, but we are not aware of our
culture.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
15
" The influence of a nation's history, infrastructure, and culture permeates all aspects of life within
the country, including the norms, values, and behaviors of managers in its national companies
11
."
Culture is an element of our environment. It arises from the being of every individual and from his
personal skills, weakness and strength.
Fig. 10 : The environment of culture
" Culture in general is defined as the whole of typical way of life of a larger group of human being
including their intellectual activities. In the wider sense culture is all what human beings process
productively or produce creatively (e.g. literature, art, music, philosophy, ...) as well as being
cultivated (e.g. culture of eating, culture of living, ...) and the kind of communicating with other
human beings (e.g. culture of conversation, culture of conflict, controversy)
12
."
" Culture is the accumulated store of symbols, ideas, and material products associated with a
social system, whether it be an entire society or a family
13
."
" Culture is the collective programming of individuals' mind that determines how a group of
individuals perceives reality
14
."
" The more or less systematically related set of constructions that people share as members of an
enduring, communicatively interacting social group. Culture is what people learn and use by virtue
11
Bartlett C.A., Ghoshal S., Managing Across Borders ­ The Transnational Solution, in: Brake T., Walker D.M., Walker T.T., Doing Business
Internationally [1995], p.28
12
cp. Microsoft LexiRom [1998] (translation from German into English)
13
Johnson A.G., The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology [1995], p.68
14
Carr-Ruffino N., Managing Diversity [1996], p.31
Environment
* social
* technical
* economical
Culture
Individuum
* values
* attitudes
* behavior
* personal skills
* weakness
* strength

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
16
of participating in a social system and what links people together so as to constitute that social
systems
15
."
" Culture ... It is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one
group or category of people from another. Culture is learned, not herited. It derives from one's
social environment, not from one's genes. Culture should be distinguished from human nature on
one side, and from an individual's personality on the other side
16
."
Using the iceberg model (see figure 11) of culture we have to distinguish between the visible part
and the invisible part of the iceberg. The seen part is the technical level of culture. On this level
only few misunderstandings arise.
Fig. 11 : The Iceberg Model of Culture
17
If we talk about culture we have to distinguish between two kinds of culture. At the one hand
culture is the generic term for art like theater, music, dance, films, literature... and education
15
Manstead A.S.R., Hewstone M., The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Psychology [1995], p.161
16
Hofstede G. : Cultures and Organizations [1991], p.5
17
adapted from : Training Management Corporation (TMC), Doing Business Internationally: The Cross-Cultural Challenges [1992]
in: Brake T., Walker, D.M., Walker T., Doing Business Internationally [1995], p.37
music
art
food and drink
greetings
dress
manners
orientation to:
environment
time
action
communication
space
power
individualism
competitiveness
structure
apparent
non apparent
adaptable
requires a change and
a long process of
learning

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
17
(culture in the narrow sense) and on the other hand culture defines the kind of behavior, attitudes
and values a certain group of people have (culture in the wider sense).
Fig. 12 : The influence of culture on behavior
18
In my believe it is more like culture being the top and values, attitudes and behavior being the
columns on which culture is based (see figure 17). At the first step there are values existing. Based
on these values people starting to develop attitudes. These attitudes appears again in the behavior of
people.
Fig. 13 : The culture triangle
18
source : Adler N., International dimensions of organizational behavior [1986], p.9
BEHAVIOR
CULTURE
VALUES
ATTITUDE
impact from
other cultures

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
18
Value
" A value is an enduring belief that one way of acting or being is preferable to another. A value
system is an organization of such beliefs along a continuum of relative importance, a prioritizing of
beliefs into a set or cluster
19
."
" Cultural values are defined as assumptions about "how things ought to be" in the society. They
are often held at a preconscious level and may never be fully articulated. As such they are
"ingrained", slow to change and have the strongest influence on behavior
20
."
" A value is a conception, explicit or implicit ...of the desirable which influences the selection from
available modes, means, and ends of action
21
."
" Values are broad tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others. Values are feelings
within an arrow to it: they have a plus and a minus side
22
."
" A cultural value is a shared idea about how something is ranked in terms of its relative social
desirability, worth, or goodness
23
."
" Human values are trans-situational goals that serve as guiding principles in the life of a person
or group
24
."
So what are the conclusions of all this definitions ? What are values ? Values are:
?
beliefs that makes an individual preferring one way of acting or being to another
?
mostly held on a preconscious level and are sometimes never fully communicated
?
slow to change
?
have a strong impact on our behavior
?
explicit or implicit conceptions
?
double-sided (minus / plus)
19
Carr-Ruffino N., Managing Diversity [1996], p.31
20
Mead R., International Management Cross-Cultural Dimensions [1994], p.7
21
Kluckhohn C., Values and Value-Orientations [1962], in: Jackson T., Cross-cultural Management [1995], p.39
22
Hofstede G., Cultures and Organizations [1991], p.8
23
Johnson A.G., The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology [1995], p.309
24
Manstead A.S.R., The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Psychology [1995], p.665

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
19
Attitude
" Attitude is normative ­ a conscious stance about how people ought to behave in society
25
."
" An attitude is an orientation toward certain objects (including persons ­ others and oneself) or
situations ... An attitude results from the application of a general value to concrete objects or
situations
26
."
" Attitudes are psychological states that predispose us to behave in certain ways
27
."
" Attitudes are predominantly a matter of affective evaluation. They represent the evaluations
(positive or negative) that we associate with diverse entities, for example, individuals, groups,
objects, actions and institutions
28
."
" ..., an attitude is a cultural orientation to something that predisposes us not only to think about it
in particular ways but to have positive or negative feelings about it as well
29
."
" ... a learned and enduring tendency to perceive or act towards persons or situations in a
particular way
30
."
So to sum it up it can be said that attitudes are:
?
normative
?
object / subject orientated
?
the result from the application of a general value to concrete objects or situations
?
causing us to behave in a certain way
25
Mead R., International Management Cross-Cultural Dimensions [1994], p.7
26
Theodorsen E.B., Theodorsen A.G., A Modern Dictionary of Sociology [1969], in: Jackson T., Cross-cultural Management [1995], p.40
27
Harris P.R., Moran R.T., Managing Cultural Differences [1996], p.31
28
Kuper A., Kuper J., The Social Science Encyclopedia [1996], p.39
29
Johnson A.G., The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology [1995], p.15
30
Jary D., Jary J., Collins Dictionary of Sociology [1991], p.32

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
20
Behavior
" ... the alteration, movement or response of any entity, person or system acting within a particular
context
31
."
Behavior is the outcome of values and attitudes. Behavior is what we can see, it is the manifestation
of values and attitudes.
Speaking about culture you have to distinguish different levels of culture beginning with the general
level of culture (world culture) and ending with a very specific level of culture (corporate culture).
Fig. 14 : The cultural hierarchy
32
31
Jary D., Jary J., Collins Dictionary of Sociology [1991], p.38
32
adapted from : Carr-Ruffino N., Managing Diversity [1996], p.36
Corporate
Culture
an organization
within a major culture
Subculture
a cultural group
within a major culture
Major Culture
a regional or national group
with common culture
World
Culture
humanity
specific
general

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
21
3.1.2.
Models to Classify Cultures
The content of the following chapters will be to show how we can divide up cultures, which are the
main characteristics of several cultures, what are the differences and how does the culture in
Singapore and Austria looks like.
3.1.2.1. The Four Dimensions of Hofstede
Geert Hofstede developed a model containing four different dimensions. For this model Geert
Hofstede made a study about 50 countries and 3 regions and compared cultures on four dimensions.
Every dimension is represented by an index.
?
Power distance (PDI)
?
Individualism with the Individualism index (IDV)
?
Uncertainty of avoidance with the index (UAI)
?
Masculinity (MAS)
Power distance
(Large versus small power distance)
... power distance in general is defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of
institutions - under institutions Geert Hofstede understands the basic elements in our world like
family, school, community, ... - or organizations within a country expect and accept that power is
distributed unequally
33
.
" Power distance is the degree to which inequality is felt to be desirable or undesirable in society
and the levels of dependence and interdependence
34
. "
The power distance give us information about the dependence relationships. If the PDI is low there
is limited dependence between people who are unequal. The emotional distance is relatively small.
33
cp. Hofstede G., Cultures and Organizations [1991], p.28
34
Brake T., Walker D.M., Walker T., Doing Business Internationally [1995], p.40

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
22
If we talk about a large power distance society we have to know that the dependence between
people who are unequal is relatively high. People who have much power try to strengthen or better
their position. But the power can only exist if there is the corresponding obedience from the other
people.
Individualism
(Individualism versus collectivism)
" Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is
expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. Collectivism as its
opposite pertains to societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong,
cohesive ingroups, which throughout people's lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for
unquestioning loyalty
35
."
" ... it is the degree to which individual interests are given priority over the group
36
."
" So if the individualism index is high we speak of individualist societies and if this index is low it
refers to collectivist societies. In individualist cultures, people are supposed to look after their own
interest and that of their immediate family (husband, wife and children). In collectivist cultures, on
the other hand, people remain, throughout their lives, members of larger but close-knit in-groups
which protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty, and which compete with other in-groups
(families, tribes, clans or villages)
37
."
Uncertainty avoidance
(Strong versus weak uncertainty avoidance)
Geert Hofstede defines uncertainty avoidance : " as the extent to which the members of a culture
feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations. This feeling is, among other things, expressed
through nervous stress and in a need for predictability : a need for written and unwritten rules
38
."
35
Hofstede G., Cultures and Organizations [1991], p.51
36
Brake T., Walker D.M., Walker T., Doing Business Internationally [1995], p.40
37
Hofstede G., in: Hickson D.J., Management in Western Europe [1993], p.2
38
Hofstede G., Cultures and Organizations [1991], p.113

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
23
How is uncertainty handled, is it seen as threat or more as chance, it deals with the level of anxiety
about the future and the protection of society through technology, rules and rituals.
Masculinity
(Masculinity versus femininity)
Degree to which achievement and success are given priority over caring for others and the quality
of life.
This dimension was associated strongly with the importance attached to
39
:
?
" for the masculine pole : earnings, recognition, advancement and challenge
?
for the feminine pole : manager, cooperation, living area and employment security "
If the masculinity index is high we speak about a "masculine" country and if the index becomes
lower we reach the area where we talk about a "feminine" country. The exact delimitation between
masculine and feminine is hard to fix.
" In masculine cultures, men are expected to be ambitious, assertive, concerned with money, and to
admire whatever is big and strong. Women are supposed to care and serve. In feminine cultures,
men and women are both expected to be non-competitive, modest, concerned with relationships,
and to sympathize with whatever is small and weak
40
."
Whereas figure 15 shows the fifty countries and three regions which where analyzed by Geert
Hofstede in his studies figure 16 contains only six countries which are of importance in this thesis.
39
Hofstede G., Cultures and Organizations [1991], p.81
40
Hofstede G., in: Hickson D.J., Management in Western Europe [1993], p.3

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
24
Fig. 15 : The 50 countries and 3 regions
41
Fig. 16 : The six selected countries and the pertinent index numbers
42
Figure 17 and 18 show the correlation between the four dimensions power distance, individualism,
uncertainty of avoidance and masculinity of the six selected countries. The graphic should
demonstrate that no dimension stands isolated from the others. Every dimensions exercises an
influence on the other dimensions.
41
source: Hofstede G., Cultures and Organizations [1991], p.55
42
source: Hofstede G., Cultures and Organizations [1991], p.26ff
Egypt, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya,
the European countries described in the paper
the Asian countries described in the paper
Countries
Regions
Argentina
Japan
Arab countries
Australia
Malaysia
Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates
Austria
Mexico
East Africa
Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania
Belgium
Netherlands
West Africa
Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone
Brazil
New Zealand
Canada
Norway
Chile
Pakistan
Colombia
Panama
Costa Rica
Peru
Denmark
Philippines
Equador
Portugal
Finland
Salvador
France
Singapore
Germany F.R.
South Africa
Great Britain
South Korea
Greece
Spain
Guatemala
Sweden
Hong Kong
Switzerland
India
Taiwan
Indonesia
Thailand
Iran
Turkey
Ireland
United States
Israel
Uruguay
Italy
Venezuela
Jamaica
Yugoslavia
Regions
Country
Abbreviation PDI score IDV score MAS score UAI score
Austria
AUT
11
55
79
70
Germany FR
GER
35
67
66
65
India
IND
77
48
56
40
Indonesia
IDO
78
14
46
48
Malaysia
MAL
104
26
50
36
Singapore
SIN
74
20
48
8
range total
11-104
6-91
5-95
8-112

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A BARRIER TO OVERCOME
25
G E R
A U T
I N D
M A L
SIN
I D O
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1 0 0
1 1 0
0
10
2 0
30
4 0
50
60
7 0
80
9 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
SIN
IDO
M A L
I N D
GER
AUT
0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
0
1 0
2 0
30
4 0
5 0
60
70
8 0
90
1 0 0
110
A U T
G E R
I N D
M A L
IDO
SIN
0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
0
1 0
2 0
30
40
5 0
6 0
70
80
9 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
A U T
G E R
I N D
M A L
IDO
SIN
0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
0
1 0
2 0
30
40
5 0
6 0
70
80
9 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
10 20
30 40
50
60 70
80 90 100 110
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
PDI
UAI
MAS
IDV
THE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN MAS / PDI / UAI / IDV
AUT
GER
IND
MAL
IDO
SIN
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
PDI
UAI
SIN
IDO
MAL
IND
GER
AUT
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
MAS
IDV
Fig. 17 : Correlation between MAS / UAI / PDI / IDV
43
Fig. 18 : Correlation between UAI / PDI and IDV / MAS
44
43
adapted from : Hofstede G., Cultures and Organizations [1991], p.26ff
44
adapted from : Hofstede G., Cultures and Organizations [1991], p.26ff

Details

Seiten
Erscheinungsform
Originalausgabe
Jahr
2000
ISBN (eBook)
9783832444570
ISBN (Paperback)
9783838644578
DOI
10.3239/9783832444570
Dateigröße
1.8 MB
Sprache
Englisch
Institution / Hochschule
Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt – Wirtschaftswissenschaften und Informatik
Erscheinungsdatum
2001 (September)
Note
2,0
Schlagworte
internationale projekte internationales management kultur unterschiede kulturelle unterschiede verhaltensweise kulturübergreifend singapore europa hilfe für interkulturelle projekt internationale projekte einfluss von kultur anpassung cultural change change management business reengineering
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